On the domestic front, Obama continued to use the power of executive action to address issues that remained bogged down in Congress. In February 2014 Obama, unable to persuade Congress to raise the federal minimum wage, signed an executive order raising the hourly minimum wage of federal contract workers to $10.10. In June he took on climate change, directing the Environmental Protection Agency to instate new rules calling for power plants to significantly reduce their carbon emissions by 2030. Speaker of the House Boehner responded to Obama’s use of executive action by accusing the president of having “repeatedly run an end-around on the American people and their elected legislators” and by threatening to bring a lawsuit against him for misusing his executive powers. “So sue me,” a combative Obama said in early July, his remark aimed at House Republicans. “As long as they’re doing nothing,” he continued, “I’m not going to apologize for trying to do something.”

Immigration reform, an issue that Obama had attempted to address in June 2012 with executive action (the Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals policy, often called DACA, that deferred for two years deportations of immigrants who had come to the United States illegally as children), was back in the spotlight in 2014 as a crisis arose along the country’s border with Mexico. From October 2013 to mid-June 2014 some 50,000 unaccompanied children from Central America were apprehended attempting to enter the U.S. illegally. In July the administration sought $3.7 billion from Congress to confront the crisis.

In early August 2014 Obama carefully sought not to take sides when the fatal shooting of Michael Brown, an unarmed African American teenager, by a white police officer resulted in days of civil unrest and protests fueled by tensions between the predominantly Black population of Ferguson, Missouri, a St. Louis suburb, and its predominantly white government and police department. The president did, however, cite the incident in his September speech to the UN as an example of “our own racial and ethnic tensions” while pointing to the failure of Americans at times “to live up to our ideals.” On September 19 there was a scare at the White House when, only minutes after the first family had left the residence, a man leapt the surrounding fence and made his way into the White House. The security breach spurred a congressional hearing that addressed other recent lapses by the Secret Service, and soon afterward its director, Julia Pierson, resigned.

With Obama’s approval rating bobbing at about 40 percent, Republicans framed the midterm congressional elections in November 2014 as a referendum on his presidency. The electorate—seemingly unhappy with the president’s response to the Ebola crisis, the advances of ISIL in Iraq and Syria, congressional gridlock, and a range of other issues, as well as being disappointed with the pace and nature of the economic recovery—handed the Democrats a crushing defeat. In gaining 12 seats, Republicans were in a position to match the largest majority that they had enjoyed in the House since 1947, and, moreover, they retook control of the Senate, gaining 9 seats to reach a total of 54, after the results were in for the December runoff election in Louisiana (a Republican victory).

On November 20 Obama once again employed an executive order in an attempt to overcome legislative gridlock when he announced reform of U.S. immigration policy that would grant work permits and temporary legal status to more than four million illegal immigrants. The action would delay deportation and allow parents of children who were legal residents or U.S. citizens to apply for three-year work permits, provided that they had been in the country for five years or more. The order also removed the age limitation from the president’s 2012 executive order regarding immigrants who had been brought to the United States as children and changed the year by which they were required to have immigrated from 2007 to 2010. Vowing to counteract the order, Republicans accused Obama of skirting Congress and engaging in an imperial presidency.

In December 2013, at a memorial for South African leader Nelson Mandela, Obama and Cuban leader Raúl Castro had shared a handshake that seemed to offer symbolic new hope for improved Cuban-U.S. relations. On December 17, 2014, after some 18 months of secret negotiations fostered by Canada and the Vatican, that handshake bore fruit as Obama and Castro simultaneously addressed national television audiences to announce the normalization of relations between the United States and Cuba that had been suspended in January 1961. “We will end an outdated approach that for decades has failed to advance our interests,” Obama said. At the beginning of his administration, he had hoped to restart relations, but that initiative had been undermined by the incarceration of Alan Gross, a subcontractor for the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) who had been held in Cuba since 2009 after being convicted of importing illegal technology and attempting to establish secret Internet service for Cuban Jews. The announcement of renewed diplomatic relations was accompanied by the release of Gross and a prisoner exchange of three Cuban intelligence agents who had been jailed in the United States since 1998 for a U.S. intelligence agent who had been captive in Cuba for nearly 20 years.

Because the more-than-five-decade embargo on trade with Cuba was codified in U.S. law, rescinding it was beyond the scope of Obama’s executive authority and would require congressional action, which was anything but assured, given the widespread opposition among Republicans to normalizing relations. Nevertheless, Obama was able to mandate the establishment of an embassy in Havana, a review of Cuba’s status as a state sponsor of terrorism, and the easing of some travel and financial restrictions (including an increase in the amount of money expatriates were allowed to remit to Cuba).

In December Obama’s response to police violence was again questioned after a grand jury failed to indict a New York City policeman for his responsibility in the death of Eric Garner, an unarmed African American man who died after having a choke hold applied to him during his arrest on Staten Island in July. The president and New York City Mayor Bill de Blasio established a task force charged with improving relations between minority communities and police, but many of those around the country who had taken to the streets to proclaim that “Black lives matter” felt that Obama was not doing enough.

Baltimore riot, Charleston shooting, Supreme Court approval of same-sex marriage, and agreement with Iran

The first half of 2015 was a roller-coaster ride of low and high points for the president: on one hand, the country continued to experience a rash of deeply troubling incidents of race-related violence, while, on the other hand, the Supreme Court ruled as the administration had hoped it would in a pair of landmark cases.

In an episode reminiscent of the events in Ferguson and Staten Island, on April 19 a young African American man in Baltimore died a week after incurring a severe spinal-cord injury while in police custody. Rioting erupted in Baltimore on the day of his funeral, April 27. As troubling as the incidents of police violence and the issues of police accountability were, the country was even more stunned and saddened when, on June 17, nine African Americans were shot and killed, allegedly by a young white man, in a hate crime in a historic Black church in Charleston, South Carolina. In his eulogy for one of the shooting’s victims—the Rev. Clementa Pinckney, a South Carolina state senator—Obama addressed gun control, race relations, and the symbolic impact of the Confederate flag, which he said represented more than just “ancestral pride” because for many it was a “reminder of systemic oppression and racial subjugation.” (In the wake of the shooting, the flying of the Confederate flag at the state capitol in South Carolina was the object of renewed criticism, and on July 10, in response to legislative action by South Carolina lawmakers, the flag was removed permanently from the capitol grounds.)

Perhaps this tragedy causes…us to examine what we’re doing to cause some of our children to hate. Perhaps it softens hearts towards those lost young men…caught up in the criminal justice system and leads us to make sure that that system is not infected with bias; that we embrace changes in how we train and equip our police so that the bonds of trust between law enforcement and the communities they serve make us all safer and more secure.

Maybe we now realize the way racial bias can infect us even when we don’t realize it, so that we’re guarding against not just racial slurs, but we’re also guarding against the subtle impulse to call Johnny back for a job interview but not Jamal.

Obama’s hopes for the removal of discrimination received a huge boost on June 26 when the Supreme Court ruled in Obergefell v. Hodges that state bans on same-sex marriage and on recognizing same-sex marriages performed in other jurisdictions are unconstitutional under the due process and equal protection clauses of the Fourteenth Amendment. The ruling thereby legalized the practice of same-sex marriage throughout the country. One day earlier, in King v. Burwell, the Supreme Court further solidified the legality of Obamacare by upholding that part of the legislation that allowed the government to provide subsidies to poor and middle-class citizens in order to help them purchase health care. Lifted by those successes, Obama’s approval rating climbed over 50 percent for the first time in more than two years.

July brought yet another policy success for the president when a final agreement was reached between Iran and the P5+1 (the United States and the other permanent members of the UN Security Council [China, France, Russia, and the United Kingdom], along with Germany) that placed limits on Iran’s nuclear program in exchange for the reduction of sanctions against the country. The agreement came after more than a decade of negotiations over Iran’s nuclear research program, which many observers suspected was aimed at developing nuclear weapons, though Iran maintained that it was intended for peaceful purposes. An interim agreement had been reached in November 2013, and the final agreement largely followed the terms of the framework document that was accepted by all parties in April 2015. Under the terms of the agreement, Iran would greatly reduce its nuclear stockpile over a 10-year period and give inspectors from the International Atomic Energy Agency access to its nuclear facilities in exchange for the gradual removal of sanctions. In praising the agreement, Obama said that “every pathway to a nuclear weapon” for Iran had been cut off, but many Republicans were quick to denounce the accord, which Congress had 60 days to consider with the options of accepting, rejecting, or taking no action on it. On September 10 the Republican-led effort to reject the treaty was stalled in its tracks when opponents of the agreement in the Senate were unable to secure enough votes to overcome a Democratic filibuster that had blocked the passage of a measure aimed at repealing the treaty. Yet another major policy goal had been achieved by Obama without the aid of a single Republican vote.