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- Columbia University - Asia for Educators - Defining "Daoism": A Complex History
- Minnesota Library Publishing Project - World Religions: the Spirit Searching - Daoism
- Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy - Laozi
- Khan Academy - Daoism
- OpenStax - Introduction to Philosophy - Daoism
- Western Kentucky University - TopSCHOLAR - The Creation of Daoism
- Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy - Daoist Philosophy
- The Metropolitan Museum of Art - Daoism and Daoist Art
- National Geographic - Taoism
- Asia Society - Daoism
- Humanities LibreTexts - Daoism
- Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy - Taoism
- World History Encyclopedia - Taoism
- Pinyin romanization:
- Daoism
- Key People:
- Zhuang Zhou
- Laozi
- Liezi
- Zhao Youqin
- Kou Qianzhi
- On the Web:
- Columbia University - Asia for Educators - Defining "Daoism": A Complex History (Oct. 28, 2024)
Though Taoism never became the exclusive state religion in the South, its most eminent representatives founded powerful organizations that received considerable official support. Lu Xiujing in the 5th century epitomized the Lingbao tradition, the liturgies of which he codified. His establishment at the great Buddho-Taoist center, Lushan (in Jiangxi province), carried out ceremonies and provided auspicious portents in favor of the Liu-Song dynasty (420–479), in whose rulers Taoists complacently agreed to recognize the fulfillment of the old messianic prophesies and the legitimate continuation of the Han dynasty. Lu was frequently invited to the capital (present-day Nanjing), where the Chongxuguan (Abbey) was founded for him and served as the focal point of the Lingbao movement.
Like Lu, who was a member of the old aristocracy of Wu, Tao Hongjing of the 5th and 6th centuries enjoyed even greater renown as the most eminent Taoist master of his time. He spent years in searching out the manuscript legacy of Yang Xi and the Xus, and in 492 retired to Maoshan, where he edited and annotated the revealed texts and attempted to re-create their practices in their original setting. Tao Hongjing’s fame as a poet, calligrapher, and natural philosopher has persisted throughout Chinese history; he is perhaps best known as the founder of critical pharmacology. Tao Hongjing was an intimate friend of the great 6th-century Liang dynasty emperor Wudi, and his Maoshan establishment was able to survive the proscription of all other Taoist sects in 504. Though whole Taoist families lived under Tao Hongjing’s spiritual rule at Maoshan, he himself stressed the need for celibacy and full-time commitment to the work of the Tao. Tao Hongjing appears to have effected a working synthesis of the public rites of the Lingbao liturgies with the private and individual practices enjoined in the Maoshan revelations. This dual practice was to remain a feature of all subsequent Taoist sects. Tao Hongjing’s primary interest, however, was in the scriptures of the perfected of Shangqing; and this is reflected in the revelations vouchsafed by these same spiritual agents to a 19-year-old disciple of Tao Hongjing’s, Zhou Ziliang, in 515–516. These revelations show a pronounced Buddhist influence, and Tao Hongjing was himself reputed to be a master of Buddhist as well as Taoist doctrine. His writings evidence a complete familiarity with Buddhist literature, and it is reported that both Buddhist monks and Taoist priests officiated at his burial rites.
State Taoism in the North
Under the foreign rulers of North China, independent developments likewise were in progress. In 415, one Kou Qianzhi received a revelation from Laojun himself. According to this new dispensation, Kou was designated celestial master and ordered to undertake a total reformation of Taoism. Not only were all popular messianic movements claiming to represent Laojun unsparingly condemned but Kou’s mission was particularly aimed at the elimination of abuses from the Way of the Celestial Masters itself. Sexual rites and the taxes contributed to the support of the priesthood were the principal targets of the god’s denunciations; “What have such matters to do with the pure Tao?” he irately demanded. The proposed reform was far more radical than that foreseen in the Maoshan revelations of the Southeast, and Kou was given concrete temporal power of a sort that the Xus had not envisaged. Political and economic factors favored the acceptance of his message at court; Emperor Taiwudi (5th century) of the Northern Wei dynasty put Kou in charge of religious affairs within his dominions and proclaimed Taoism the official religion of the empire. The emperor considered himself to reign as the terrestrial deputy of the deified Laozi, as is indicated by the name of one of the periods of his reign: Taiping Zhenjun (“Perfect Lord of the Great Peace”). The dominant position of Taoism under the Northern Wei, however, apparently did not long survive Kou Qianzhi’s death in 448.