Ouro Prêto: …facade of the Church of Nossa Senhora do Carmo are his masterpieces. The Oratory Museum contains a notable collection of portable altars. Pop. (2010) 70,227.

Itapetininga, city, in the highlands of east-central São Paulo estado (state), Brazil. It lies at 2,200 feet (670 metres) above sea level, near the Itapetininga River. Formerly called Nossa Senhora dos Prazeres de Itapetininga, it was given town status in 1770 and was made the seat of a

Nosy Be, island lying about 5 miles (8 km) off the northwestern shore of Madagascar. The name means “Big Island.” It is 19 miles (30 km) long, 12 miles (19 km) wide, and has an area of about 120 square miles (310 square km). Formed by volcanoes, the island is forested and has numerous craters and

Nossob River, intermittently flowing river, west-central Namibia, formed by two intermittent streams, the White Nossob and the Black Nossob, both of which rise northeast of Windhoek (the national capital). Their confluence is north of Leonardville, which is located near the tropic of Capricorn. The

Nossob River, intermittently flowing river, west-central Namibia, formed by two intermittent streams, the White Nossob and the Black Nossob, both of which rise northeast of Windhoek (the national capital). Their confluence is north of Leonardville, which is located near the tropic of Capricorn. The

Nostoc, genus of blue-green algae with cells arranged in beadlike chains that are grouped together in a gelatinous mass. Ranging from microscopic to walnut-sized, masses of Nostoc may be found on soil and floating in quiet water. Reproduction is by fragmentation. A special thick-walled cell

anti-Semitism: The origins of Christian anti-Semitism: …the Vatican II declaration of Nostra aetate (Latin: “In Our Era”) in 1965, which transformed Roman Catholic teaching regarding Jews and Judaism.

Nostradamus was a French astrologer and physician, the most widely read seer of the Renaissance. Nostradamus began his medical practice in Agen sometime in the 1530s, despite not only never having taken a medical degree but also apparently having been expelled from medical school. In 1544 he moved

Nostratic hypothesis, proposed, but still controversial, language family of northern Eurasia. The term Nostratic was proposed in 1903 by the Danish linguist Holger Pedersen to encompass Indo-European, Uralic, Altaic, Afro-Asiatic, and possibly other language families under one broad category.

Nostradamus was a French astrologer and physician, the most widely read seer of the Renaissance. Nostradamus began his medical practice in Agen sometime in the 1530s, despite not only never having taken a medical degree but also apparently having been expelled from medical school. In 1544 he moved

nose: …are known as nares or nostrils. The roof of the mouth and the floor of the nose are formed by the palatine bone, the mouth part of which is commonly called the hard palate; a flap of tissue, the soft palate, extends back into the nasopharynx, the nasal portion of…

Nostromo, novel by Joseph Conrad, published in 1904 and considered one of Conrad’s strongest works. Nostromo is a study of revolution, politics, and financial manipulation in a fictional South American republic. The work anticipates many of the political crises of Third World countries in the 20th

Nostromo, novel by Joseph Conrad, published in 1904 and considered one of Conrad’s strongest works. Nostromo is a study of revolution, politics, and financial manipulation in a fictional South American republic. The work anticipates many of the political crises of Third World countries in the 20th

Sino-Tibetan languages: Tibeto-Burman languages: … in its widest application) includes Yi (Lolo), Hani, Lahu, Lisu, Kachin (Jingpo), Kuki-Chin, the obsolete Xixia (Tangut), and other languages. The Tibetan writing system (which dates from the 7th century) and the Burmese (dating from the 11th century) are derived from the Indo-Aryan (Indic)

Nosy Be, island lying about 5 miles (8 km) off the northwestern shore of Madagascar. The name means “Big Island.” It is 19 miles (30 km) long, 12 miles (19 km) wide, and has an area of about 120 square miles (310 square km). Formed by volcanoes, the island is forested and has numerous craters and

Kálmán Mikszáth: … (1900; “A Strange Marriage”) and A Noszty fiu esete Tóth Marival (1908; “The Noszty Boy and Mary Tóth”). The first of these works is set in early 19th-century Hungary and deals with the fight of two lovers against the oppressive forces of society. The second tells the story of a…

Tim McGraw: …was unsuccessful, but his follow-up, Not a Moment Too Soon, became the biggest-selling country album of 1994 (and the sixth best-selling album of the year in any genre). His celebrity spread with the release of All I Want (1995) and with his high-profile marriage in 1996 to country star Faith…

Hungarian literature: Writing after 1945: Esterházy’s Semmi művészet (2008; Not Art: A Novel) depicts a football- (soccer-) obsessed mother’s relationship with her son.

Stanley Kramer: Directing: …made his directorial debut with Not as a Stranger, a middling medical soap opera that starred Robert Mitchum, Frank Sinatra, and Olivia de Havilland. The historical drama The Pride and the Passion (1957), however, was better received, in part because of a cast that featured Sinatra, Cary Grant, and

Soviet Union: The cultural Thaw: …and Vladimir Dudintsev, whose novel Not by Bread Alone (1957) created great controversy with its depiction of a corrupt Soviet bureaucracy. The main reason behind the policy was Khrushchev’s desire to attack Stalin and Stalinism, but Khrushchev always underestimated the damage he was doing to the authority of the Party.

endangered species: IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: The IUCN system uses five quantitative criteria to assess the extinction risk of a given species. In general, these criteria…

James Gandolfini: Gandolfini later appeared in Not Fade Away (2012), the story of a teenage rock band in 1960s New Jersey that was directed by The Sopranos creator David Chase, and as Leon Panetta in Zero Dark Thirty (2012), about the U.S. military operation to kill Osama bin Laden. In The…

Buddy Holly: …crafting tracks such as “Not Fade Away,” “Peggy Sue,” “Listen to Me,” and “Everyday,” Holly and the Crickets camped out at Petty’s studio for days at a time, using it as a combination laboratory and playground. They were the first rock and rollers to approach the recording process in…

NIMBY, a colloquialism signifying one’s opposition to the locating of something considered undesirable in one’s neighborhood. The phrase “not in my backyard,” shortened to “NIMBY,” seems to have appeared first in the mid-1970s. It was used in the context of the last major effort by electric

NIMBY, a colloquialism signifying one’s opposition to the locating of something considered undesirable in one’s neighborhood. The phrase “not in my backyard,” shortened to “NIMBY,” seems to have appeared first in the mid-1970s. It was used in the context of the last major effort by electric

Genevieve Taggard: In 1934 Taggard published Not Mine to Finish: Poems 1928–1934. Those poems on art, nature, and identity showed off Taggard’s intellectual and lyrical talents. Her next book, Calling Western Union (1936), was a collection of social protest poems. Her subsequent poetry collections, most notably Slow Music (1946), returned to…

Conan O’Brien: …for HBO’s popular news-show parody Not Necessarily the News. He wrote for the program for two years and acted in several improvisational groups, including the Groundlings. In 1988 he became a writer at the late-night comedy show Saturday Night Live (SNL), where he created such popular recurring characters as Mr.…

Brad Pitt: Personal life and humanitarian causes: …and was actively involved in Not on Our Watch, a campaign that directed resources to developing countries in crisis, notably the Sudanese province of Darfur. In 2006 he established the Make It Right Foundation, a multimillion-dollar project to construct environmentally friendly homes in New Orleans for people displaced by Hurricane…

Zhang Yimou: …dou bu neng shao (1999; Not One Less). The latter movie, centring on a school in a poor village, won the Golden Lion at the Venice Film Festival. In 1999 Zhang also released the acclaimed Wode fuqin muqin (The Road Home), a romantic drama in which a son recounts his…

Afrocentrism: Criticism of Afrocentrism: In her book Not Out of Africa: How Afrocentrism Became an Excuse to Teach Myth as History (1996), the American classicist Mary Lefkowitz attempted to refute most of the assertions made by Bernal, Diop, and others.

Joan Armatrading: the Blues (2007), Starlight (2013), Not Too Far Away (2018), and Consequences (2021), all of which she produced herself. Armatrading also wrote the music for Phyllida Lloyd’s all-women production of Shakespeare’s The Tempest, staged in London in 2016 and in New York City the following year. A documentary, Joan Armatrading:…

Norah Jones: …Jones released her third album, Not Too Late, in 2007. The album, recorded in her home studio, was the first for which Jones was involved in the writing process of every song. As well, it was the first on which she played guitar in addition to piano. In 2007 Jones…

Willa Cather: …House (1925) and her essays Not Under Forty (1936).

Ida Lupino: Directing: …project was the unwed-mother drama Not Wanted (1949), which Lupino produced and coscripted with Paul Jarrico. Director Elmer Clifton fell ill midway through the production, and Lupino stepped in and completed it; her work was not credited, however. She made her official directing debut with Never Fear (1949; also known…

Canadian literature: Fiction: Famous Last Words (1981) and Not Wanted on the Voyage (1984), the latter a retelling of the voyage of Noah’s ark, are also historical metafictions that point to dangerous fascistic tendencies in the modern state.

Langston Hughes: …few months after Hughes’s graduation, Not Without Laughter (1930), his first prose volume, had a cordial reception. In the 1930s he turned his poetry more forcefully toward racial justice and political radicalism. He traveled in the American South in 1931 and decried the Scottsboro case; he then traveled widely in…

denial of Not-Being, in Eleatic philosophy, the assertion of the monistic philosopher Parmenides of Elea that only Being exists and that Not-Being is not, and can never be. Being is necessarily described as one, unique, unborn and indestructible, and immovable. The opposite of Being is Not-Being

nonprofit organization, an organization, typically dedicated to pursuing mission-oriented goals through the collective actions of citizens, that is not formed and organized so as to generate a profit. In the United States a nonprofit organization is legally delineated from firms in the for-profit

Mdina, town, west-central Malta, adjoining Rabat, west of Valletta. Possibly Bronze Age in origin, it has Punic, Greek, and Roman ruins. The name derives from the Arabic word madīnah (“town,” or “city”). It was also named Notabile in the 15th century, possibly by the Castilian rulers who made it

About 50,000 earthquakes large enough to be noticed without the aid of instruments occur annually worldwide. Some 100 of these are large enough to cause substantial damage if centered near populated areas. Over the centuries, earthquakes have been responsible for millions of deaths and incalculable

France: King and parlements: The Assembly of Notables that Calonne had suggested met in February 1787. The minister presented a program that offered the country’s upper classes some voice in lawmaking in exchange for their consent to the abolition of many traditional privileges, particularly the nobility’s immunity to taxes. Although…

spiny eel: …and of the deep-sea family Notacanthidae (order Notacanthiformes). Members of both groups are elongated and eel-like but are not related to true eels.

Myobatrachidae: The Catholic frog (Notaden bennetti) is a yellow or greenish Australian myobatrachid about 4 cm (1.5 inches) long. It was named for the dark, crosslike pattern on its back, and it frequents dry regions and lives underground, emerging from its burrow after a heavy rain. The…

shorthand: History and development of shorthand: …of Cicero’s household, invented the notae Tironianae (“Tironian notes”), the first Latin shorthand system. Devised in 63 bc, it lasted over a thousand years. Tiro also compiled a shorthand dictionary. Among the early accomplished shorthand writers were the emperor Titus, Julius Caesar, and a number of bishops. With the beginning…

inheritance: Formalities of wills: The notarial will, which is also available in most civil-law countries, is executed so that the testator either dictates its provisions to the notary or hands him an instrument declaring that it contains his will. (In civil-law countries, a notary is not a layperson but a…

middot: …of the rules, such as noṭariqon (“shorthand”), allowed for arbitrary interpretations. According to noṭariqon, each letter of a word may be regarded as the initial letter of another word, so that a word in a text might be read as an entire sentence. Another principle, al tiqre . . .…

notary, public official whose chief function in common-law countries is to authenticate contracts, deeds, and other documents by an appropriate certificate with a notarial seal. In Roman law the notarius was originally a slave or freedman who took notes of judicial proceedings. The work of the

notary, public official whose chief function in common-law countries is to authenticate contracts, deeds, and other documents by an appropriate certificate with a notarial seal. In Roman law the notarius was originally a slave or freedman who took notes of judicial proceedings. The work of the

Juan Zorrilla de San Martín: His first work, Notas de un himno (1876; “Notes for a Hymn”), dealing with themes of sadness and patriotism, clearly reflects the influence of the famous Spanish Romantic poet Gustavo Adolfo Becquer and sets the tone for all his poetic work that followed. In 1878 he founded the…

gastropod: Classification: Order Notaspidea Shell and gill usually present; no parapodia (extensions of foot); sperm groove open; shell prominent, reduced, or hidden by mantle; 2 families. Order Sacoglossa One file of radular teeth; sperm duct a closed tube; shell reduced to bivalved (Juliidae); many feed by sucking juices…

formal logic: …logician customarily uses a symbolic notation to express such structures clearly and unambiguously and to enable manipulations and tests of validity to be more easily applied. Although the following discussion freely employs the technical notation of modern symbolic logic, its symbols are introduced gradually and with accompanying explanations so that…

logic: Logical notation: The way in which logical concepts and their interpretations are expressed in natural languages is often very complicated. In order to reach an overview of logical truths and valid inferences, logicians have developed various streamlined notations. Such notations can be thought of as…

dance notation: Twentieth-century developments: She outlined her system in The Notation of Movement (1928); in addition to direction symbols, she provided separate signs for each movement of each part of the body. This was not an advantage in comparison with “alphabet” systems, in which the same basic type of movement is written with the…

Germany: The princes and the Landstände: …imposition of extraordinary taxes (Notbeden) remained the crucial issue between the princes and the estates. The mounting cost of war and administration outstripped the ordinary revenues of the ruler, plunged him deeply into debt, and compelled him to seek financial aid from the estates with increasing frequency. In the…

cell: The process of differentiation: …possess a surface receptor called Notch. These cells also possess another cell surface molecule called Delta that can bind to and activate Notch on adjacent cells. Activation of Notch initiates a cascade of intracellular events that results in suppression of Delta production and suppression of neuronal differentiation. This means that…

naval architecture: Materials of construction: …use of steel lacking in notch toughness. This term refers to the steel’s ability to absorb energy by stretching in the vicinity of sharp corners, notches, and cracks, particularly at low temperatures or at high stretching rates. This quality is particularly important where all the plating seams around the girth…

flute: …to facilitate sound generation (notched flutes). Vertical nose flutes are also found, especially in Oceania. In transverse, or cross, flutes (i.e., horizontally held and side blown), the stream of breath strikes the opposite rim of a lateral mouth hole. Vertical flutes such as the recorder, in which an internal…

tone, in acoustics, sound that can be recognized by its regularity of vibration. A simple tone has only one frequency, although its intensity may vary. A complex tone consists of two or more simple tones, called overtones. The tone of lowest frequency is called the fundamental; the others,

note, in the notation of Western music, sign indicating pitch by its position on the staff and showing duration by its shape. Notes evolved in the 13th century from neumes (q.v.), signs indicating relative or absolute pitch and nuance but not necessarily rhythm. The earliest notes were the longa,

Sidney Bechet: …critically timed deviations in pitch (“note bending”) that had the greatest long-lasting influence, because they were absorbed by his disciple Johnny Hodges, Duke Ellington’s principal soloist from 1928 to 1970. With a style developed around Bechet’s expressive techniques, Hodges became one of the two or three most influential alto saxophonists…

Henry de Bracton: Called the Note-Book, it was edited by the British legal scholar Frederic Maitland and published in 1887.

molecular gastronomy: Historical precedents and development: …inspired various trends, notably “note-by-note cooking,” which was introduced by Hervé This in the mid-1990s and gained popularity in the ensuing decades. This style uses only pure compounds—such as water, ethanol, and glucose—rather than traditional food ingredients (plants and animals). It is for food the equivalent of synthetic music.

12-tone music, large body of music, written roughly since World War I, that uses the so-called 12-tone method or technique of composition. The Austrian-born composer Arnold Schoenberg is credited with the invention of this technique, although other composers (e.g., the American composer Charles

Robert Lowell, Jr.: …Near the Ocean (1967), and Notebook 1967–68 (1969). The last-named work is a poetic record of a tumultuous year in the poet’s life and exhibits the interrelation between politics, the individual, and his culture. Lowell’s trilogy of plays, The Old Glory, which views American culture over the span of history,…

laptop computer, portable personal computer that features a screen, touch pad, and alphanumeric keyboard. Laptops usually have a clamshell design, in which the screen is located on the interior of the upper lid and the keyboard is located on the interior of the lower lid. Laptop screens are

Ho Chi Minh: World War II and the founding of the Vietnamese state: …time he wrote his famed Notebook from Prison (a collection of short poems written in classic Chinese, a mixture of melancholy, stoicism, and a call for revolution). His friends obtained his release by an arrangement with Chiang Fa-k’uei, a warlord in South China, agreeing in return to support Chiang’s interests…

The Notebook of Malte Laurids Brigge, novel in journal form by Rainer Maria Rilke, published in 1910 in German as Die Aufzeichnungen des Malte Laurids Brigge. The book, which is composed of 71 diary-like entries, contains descriptive, reminiscent, and meditative parts. Brigge, its supposed author,

Ryan Gosling: Remember the Titans and The Notebook: …performance in the romantic drama The Notebook, which was based on a 1996 novel by Nicholas Sparks. The movie tells the tale of two young people—Noah Calhoun, played by Gosling, and Allie Hamilton, played by Rachel McAdams—who share a whirlwind romance in the 1940s despite the disapproval of Allie’s relationship…

Nicholas Sparks: …spent several months working on The Notebook, his first published novel, which hit The New York Times best-seller list immediately after it reached the public in 1996. By the time the film adaptation was released in 2004, Sparks had published seven more novels, two of which, Message in a Bottle…

André Gide: Heritage and youth: …Les Cahiers d’André Walter (1891; The Notebooks of André Walter). Written, like most of his later works, in the first person, it uses the confessional form in which Gide was to achieve his greatest successes.

The Notebook of Malte Laurids Brigge, novel in journal form by Rainer Maria Rilke, published in 1910 in German as Die Aufzeichnungen des Malte Laurids Brigge. The book, which is composed of 71 diary-like entries, contains descriptive, reminiscent, and meditative parts. Brigge, its supposed author,

Finland: Finland under Swedish rule: …lasted until 1323, when the Treaty of Pähkinäsaari (Nöteborg; now Petrokrepost) drew the boundary between the Russian and Swedish spheres of influence in a vague line from the eastern part of the Gulf of Finland through the middle of Karelia northwest to the Gulf of Bothnia, and the crusades were…

Shlisselburg, town, Leningrad oblast (region), northwestern European Russia. It is located on the Neva River where it flows out of Lake Ladoga, east of St. Petersburg city. Founded as Oreshek in 1323 by the republic of Novgorod, the town was captured in the early 17th century by the Swedes, who

tiger snake, (genus Notechis), Australian member of the cobra family, Elapidae. The snake’s venom, which contains a blood-clotting agent as well as a nerve paralyzer, is potentially fatal to humans. Before striking, the tiger snake flattens its head and neck, cobra fashion. Tiger snakes occur in

tiger snake: The black tiger snake (N. ater) is mainly limited to arid and rocky regions in South Australia. Tiger snakes eat frogs, birds, and mammals, and all attain adult lengths of 1 to 1.5 metres (3 to 5 feet). They are live-bearers.

tiger snake: The eastern tiger snake (N. scutatus) is the most widely distributed form, occurring from Victoria and New South Wales to portions of South and Western Australia. The black tiger snake (N. ater) is mainly limited to arid and rocky regions in South Australia. Tiger snakes eat…

minnow: The golden shiner, or American roach (Notemigonus cryseleucas), a larger, greenish and golden minnow attaining a length of 30 cm and a weight of 0.7 kg (1.5 pounds), is both edible and valuable as bait.

minnow: The golden shiner, or American roach (Notemigonus cryseleucas), a larger, greenish and golden minnow attaining a length of 30 cm and a weight of 0.7 kg (1.5 pounds), is both edible and valuable as bait.

coleopteran: Annotated classification: Family Noteridae (burrowing water beetles) Similar to Dytiscidae; small; larvae burrow. Family Rhysodidae (wrinkled bark beetles) Small, slender, brownish beetles; about 350 species, mostly tropical. Sometimes considered a subgroup (tribe Rhysodini) of family Carabidae. Family

Hippolyte Taine: Attack on eclecticism: Frédéric-Thomas Graindorge (1867; Notes and Opinions of Mr. Frédérick-Graindorge), perhaps the most personal and entertaining of his books.

Alfred Corn: Notes from a Child of Paradise (1984), one of Corn’s best-known works, is a long semiautobiographical poem modeled after the Paradiso in Dante’s La divina commedia. Corn’s other verse collections included The Various Light (1980), An Xmas Murder (1987), and The West Door (1988). Autobiographies…

Nelson Algren: …Lost an American? (1963) and Notes from a Sea Diary: Hemingway All the Way (1965). Algren was elected to the American Academy and Institute of Arts and Letters three months before he died.

Edward Hoagland: Hoagland’s travel books included Notes from the Century Before: A Journal from British Columbia (1969), African Calliope: A Journey to the Sudan (1979), Early in the Season: A British Columbia Journal (2008), and Alaskan Travels: Far-Flung Tales of Love and Adventure (2012). Perhaps his best work is his nature…

Anna Deavere Smith: Another one-woman play, Notes from the Field (2016), explored the “pipeline” from school to prison for poor students in the United States. It was later adapted into a TV movie (2018), in which Smith also starred in a variety of roles.

Alasdair MacIntyre: Encounter with Marxism: In his early essay “Notes from the Moral Wilderness” (1958–59), he suggested that what was needed was a teleological ethical standpoint—i.e., one according to which adherence to moral norms enables a person to achieve the human good, not by himself but in community with others. These norms are not…

Notes from the Underground, novella by Fyodor Dostoyevsky, first published in Russian as Zapiski iz podpolya in 1864. The work, which includes extremely misanthropic passages, contains the seeds of nearly all of the moral, religious, political, and social concerns that appear in Dostoyevsky’s great

Charles Bukowski: Collections of his stories include Notes of a Dirty Old Man (1969), taken from his underground newspaper column of that name, Erections, Ejaculations, Exhibitions, and General Tales of Ordinary Madness (1972), and Hot Water Music (1983). His later novels include Post Office (1971), Factotum (1975), and Ham on Rye

African American literature: James Baldwin: …Baldwin collected his essays in Notes of a Native Son, a mix of autobiography and political commentary on race relations in America that identified Baldwin as the new conscience of the nation on racial matters. Subsequent volumes of essays, Nobody Knows My Name (1961) and The Fire Next Time (1963),…

Western painting: The 20th century: …century; it appeared in Matisse’s Notes of a Painter, published in 1908. Matisse, in fact, hardly differentiated expression from decoration; his ideal of art as “something like a good armchair in which to rest” explicitly excluded the distortion and disquiet that earned the style of Kirchner and Die Brücke (“The…

Helmuth von Moltke: Early career: …(published in his Wanderbuch, 1879; Notes of Travel, 1880). Moreover, when the warship bringing Prince Henry’s body back to Germany reached Gibraltar, Moltke left it and made his own way home across Spain, recording his impressions in his “Tagebuchblätter aus Spanien” (also published in the Wanderbuch).

Susan Sontag: …with an essay entitled “Notes on ‘Camp,’ ” in which she discussed the attributes of taste within the gay community. She also wrote on such subjects as theatre and film and such figures as writer Nathalie Sarraute, director Robert Bresson, and painter Francis Bacon. In addition to criticism and…

Philip Glass: …dramas The Hours (2002) and Notes on a Scandal (2006) and the Errol Morris documentaries A Brief History of Time (1991) and The Fog of War: Eleven Lessons from the Life of Robert S. McNamara (2003).

For some years I have been giving thought to the matter of age and aging. This is partly because of the great recent, current, and prospective increase in the older population—a major change, especially impressive in the United States, to which two key factors have contributed. One is the imminent

Richard Flanagan: Notes on an Exodus (2016) was an essay about Syrian refugees, with illustrations by Ben Quilty. Flanagan was also a respected journalist; his articles appeared regularly in The New Yorker magazine and the Paris newspaper Le Monde. He also directed the film adaptation of The…

Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie: We Should All Be Feminists and other works: …of her father, Adichie wrote Notes on Grief (2021), in which she mourned his passing and celebrated his life. In 2023 she penned her first book for children, Mama’s Sleeping Scarf, in which she described how an everyday object has the ability to connect with loved ones. The text was…

prosody: The 20th century and beyond: …Otto Jespersen’s early essay “Notes on Metre” (1900) made a number of significant discoveries. He established the principles of English metre on a demonstrably accurate structural basis; he recognized metre as a gestalt phenomenon (i.e., with emphasis on the configurational whole); he saw metrics as descriptive science rather than…

agrarianism: Agrarianism in the 18th and 19th centuries: In Notes on the State of Virginia (1785), the American statesman Thomas Jefferson, who later served as the country’s third president (1801–09), maintained that farming, rather than urban manufacture, would more likely ensure the independence and strength of character necessary for the free citizens of a…

Unanimism: …Romains and Georges Chennevière, and Notes sur la technique poétique (1910; “Notes on Poetic Technique”), by Georges Duhamel and Charles Vildrac, outlined the Unanimist theories of prosody, which resembled those of the American poet Walt Whitman in encouraging the use of strongly accented rhythms and the replacement of symbols and…

Hippolyte Taine: Attack on eclecticism: Frédéric-Thomas Graindorge (1867; Notes and Opinions of Mr. Frédérick-Graindorge), perhaps the most personal and entertaining of his books.

Notes Towards the Definition of Culture, critical treatise by T.S. Eliot that originally appeared as a series of articles in New England Weekly in 1943. It was published in book form in 1948. In the Notes, Eliot presents culture as an organic, shared system of beliefs that cannot be planned or