The country’s political life in the 1990s and 2000s was marked by prolonged instability as the monarchy, the NC, and Maoists jostled for power. Throughout those two decades the government remained largely in the hands of the NC with brief periods of CPN (UML) control. However, the NC’s leadership squabbled frequently, and the premiership alternated between Bhattarai, Koirala, and Sher Bahadur Deuba, another prominent member of the NC. Meanwhile, a group of Maoist rebels emerged in the 1990s and rapidly grew in number and strength and established their own breakaway party, the Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist), or CPN (M). The rebels often used violent tactics to champion the cause of the rural poor and advocated overthrowing the monarchy. By the early 21st century the Maoists not only posed a serious threat to the government but had virtually propelled the country into a state of civil war.

The killing in 2001 of the king and most members of the royal family by the crown prince (who also died, from self-inflicted wounds) further heightened tensions, and, after the massacre, Koirala, who was serving his third term as prime minister, was forced to resign. Deuba, who replaced Koirala, initially held negotiations with the CPN (M) to end the war, but, after peace talks broke down months later, he enlisted the help of the United States to suppress the Maoists. The new king, Birendra’s brother Gyanendra, took an active role in defending the monarchy, meanwhile, including imposing direct rule in 2005. After parliament was reinstated in April 2006, Koirala became prime minister for the fourth time. Later that year the government of Nepal and the Maoist insurgency signed a UN-mediated peace accord that provided for temporary representation of the Maoists in the Council of Ministers, restricted the rebel army to camps, and required both the Maoists and the Nepalese army to lock equal amounts of their arms in UN-monitored containers.

An interim constitution, which transferred all executive power to the prime minister, was to remain in effect until the weapons management plan had been completed, elections had been held, and a permanent constitution had been drafted to replace the 1990 document. The extent of the duties of the king as head of state was to be determined by an elected constituent assembly, which would also draft a new constitution. Elections for the assembly, originally scheduled for June 2007, were postponed several times, notably after the Maoists pulled out of the government, demanding the immediate dissolution of the monarchy. In December 2007 it was finally agreed that the monarchy would be abolished, and elections were held in April 2008. The Maoists—who changed their party name to the Unified Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist), or UCPN (M), in 2009—won the most seats, and on May 28, 2008, more than two centuries of royal rule came to an end as the new assembly voted to declare Nepal a democratic republic.

In July 2008 Ram Baran Yadav of the NC was elected by the assembly as the country’s first president. One month later an election for prime minister was held in parliament. Maoist leader Pushpa Kamal Dahal, popularly known as Prachanda, won by a wide margin and formed a coalition government. However, the coalition failed in early May 2009, and Prachanda resigned. Madhav Kumar Nepal of the CPN (UML) became prime minister later that month at the head of a 22-party coalition. The change did little to resolve the country’s ongoing political deadlock, particularly the drafting of a new constitution. In June 2010 Prime Minister Nepal resigned under pressure from the UCPN (M), which claimed the right, as the largest political party, to choose the prime minister.

Parliament, however, could not agree on Nepal’s replacement, and he remained in office until fellow CPN (UML), Jhalanath Khanal, took over in February 2011. By August, Khanal’s government had collapsed, and the UCPN (M)’s Baburam Bhattarai had assumed the office. Negotiations in the assembly on a new constitution fared no better under Bhattarai, and in May 2012 the assembly was dissolved, and members of the government resigned. Bhattarai stayed on as caretaker prime minister until March 2013, when President Yadav appointed Khil Raj Regmi, chief justice of the country’s Supreme Court, as prime minister until elections could be held.

Parliamentary elections took place in November, with the NC gaining the largest number of seats and the CPN (UML) second. The two parties discussed forming a coalition government for several months, which finally took office in February 2014. Sushil Koirala of the NC, a cousin of B.P. and G.P. Koirala, was named prime minister. After only two months in power, the Koirala administration had to deal with an avalanche on Mount Everest in mid-April that killed 16 sherpas, shut down the climbing season on the mountain, and sparked widespread protest by the families of those killed, who considered their treatment by the government inadequate. More disasters followed—a landslide in early August in which 156 people died, floods later that month that killed 102 more, and a freak snowstorm in the Annapurna region in October that killed several dozen trekkers—and in each case the government was criticized for its poor response to the crises.

Those events, however, paled in comparison with the catastrophe that struck Nepal on April 25, 2015, when the country suffered one of the most-severe earthquakes in its history. A magnitude-7.8 temblor struck some 50 miles (80 km) northwest of Kathmandu, causing widespread death and destruction. Initial estimates of hundreds of people killed by the temblor soon escalated to the thousands—with many thousands more injured—as debris was cleared in Kathmandu and other cities and rescue workers reached remote towns and villages. Damage to buildings and infrastructure was widespread, and many of the country’s historic structures in the Kathmandu Valley that had been included in a UNESCO World Heritage site (designated 1979) were destroyed or severely damaged. In addition, the quake triggered avalanches on Mount Everest that descended on hundreds of people on the mountain for the spring climbing season, killing 19 people—thus surpassing the death toll from the 2014 avalanche—and injuring dozens more. Numerous aftershocks followed the initial quake, including a severe magnitude-7.3 temblor on May 12 centred near the Tibet border west of Everest. In all, some 9,000 people were killed and nearly 16,800 more injured in the two quakes.