Herodotus

Although the logographers pioneered in the study of history, their influence was eclipsed by Herodotus, who has been called the “father of history.” His History of the Greco-Persian Wars is the longest extant text in ancient Greek. The fact that it has survived when so many other works written in ancient Greece were lost, including the majority of the plays of the great tragedians (Aeschylus, Euripides, and Sophocles) and much of the corpus of Aristotle), is testimony to the great esteem in which it was held.

Like the logographers, Herodotus’s approach was historical and anthropological. He questioned the priests at Memphis (in Egypt) and those at Heliopolis and Thebes “expressly to try whether the priests of those places [Heliopolis and Thebes] would agree in their accounts with the priests at Memphis.” He discovered that the Egyptian historical records went much further back than the Greek ones and that Egyptian customs were the reverse of those he knew (which he called “the common practice of mankind”). The Egyptians ate no wheat or barley; kneaded dough with their feet but mixed mud or even dung with their hands; lived with animals; and wrote from right to left. Herodotus also observed that “women attend the markets and trade, while the men sit at home at the loom.”

Although Herodotus also gave ethnographic details of this kind on the Scythians and the Persians, his History possesses a narrative thread, which he announces in the first paragraph: “These are the researches of Herodotus of Halicarnassus, which he publishes, in the hope of thereby preserving from decay the remembrance of what men have done, and of preventing the great and wonderful actions of the Greeks and the barbarians from losing their due meed of glory; and withal to put on record what were their grounds of feud.” The “grounds of feud” are traced back beyond the Trojan War (12th or 13th century bce) to a series of abductions of women by both Europeans and Asians. The Greeks made themselves enemies of Persia (which claimed all of Asia) when they led an army to besiege the Anatolian city of Troy to recover Helen, the Greek woman kidnapped by the Trojan prince Paris. The rivalry was renewed in the time of the Persian king Xerxes, leading to an epic conflict between the enormous forces of Persia and those of Athens, Sparta, and most, though not all, of the other Greek city-states. The pattern of a nemesis upon the hubris of the Persians is obvious.

Despite his apparently conscientious questioning of his witnesses, Herodotus developed a reputation for credulity. However, although he was certainly not one to resist a good story, he did not endorse everything he reported. He described a story that the Greeks told about the mythical hero Heracles as a “silly fable” that reflected badly on their critical sense. In the tradition of the logographers, he believed that his duty was to record the traditions of various peoples, no matter how dubious. He combined a remarkable narrative artistry with an effort to discern the causes of customs and events.

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Thucydides

The most famous critic—and emulator—of Herodotus was Thucydides (flourished 5th century bce). Whereas Herodotus had hoped to preserve the glory of Greeks and barbarians from the destruction of time, Thucydides had little glory to celebrate. In his great work, the History of the Peloponnesian War, which describes the destructive conflict (431–404 bce) between Athens and Sparta, Thucydides aimed “not to write down the first story that came my way, and not even to be guided by my own general impressions.” When reporting on events that he did not personally witness, he carefully checked the reports of eyewitnesses, bearing in mind their partiality and imperfect memories. “It may be,” he concedes,

that my history will be less easy to read because of the absence in it of a romantic element. It will be enough for me, however, if these words of mine are judged useful by those who want to understand clearly the events that happened in the past and that (human nature being what it is) will, at some time or other and in much the same ways, be repeated in the future. My work is not a piece of writing designed to meet the taste of an immediate public but was done to last forever.

Behind this veiled criticism of Herodotus is the ambition to establish a diagnostic science of history. Just as Thucydides describes the symptoms of plague in Athens, so he clinically notes the degeneration of the Athenian body politic. The city’s highest ideals are articulated in the funeral oration that Thucydides attributes to the Athenian leader Pericles; its realpolitik is brutally illustrated in the city’s treatment of the inhabitants of the island of Melos. In the famous “Melian Dialogue,” the Athenians demand that the hitherto neutral Melians join their confederation. They offer no justification of their demand beyond their power to enforce it, warning the Melians against having any hope in portents or oracles. When the Melians refuse, the Athenians send a force so strong that the Melians surrender unconditionally, whereupon the Athenians massacre all the men of military age and sell the women and children into slavery.

The pathology of the Athenians is most clearly manifested in their disastrous expedition to Sicily. Persuaded by demagogues and by soothsayers and oracles that they will prevail, the Athenians attack the island and its chief city, Syracuse, without realizing that they are undertaking a war almost as demanding as that still under way against Sparta. The expedition goes badly: the entire Athenian army is killed or captured and the prisoners confined to quarries, where “they suffered everything which one could imagine might be suffered by men imprisoned in such a place.” “To the victors,” wrote Thucydides, the Sicilian expedition was “the most brilliant of successes, to the vanquished the most calamitous of defeats; for they were utterly and entirely defeated; their sufferings were on an enormous scale; their losses were, as they say, total: army, navy, everything was destroyed.”

The lessons taught by Thucydides have not lost their timeliness, and his project for a scientific history has been taken up again and again. As a historian, he was true to the central presupposition of Greek philosophy, that the truest knowledge must be of the unchanging. Asserting his belief that human nature is “what it is,” he warned that the situations he described would arise repeatedly and expressed his hope that his analysis would prove useful to future statesmen.

One of the puzzles in the history of historiography is why the brilliant beginnings of the Greek tradition exhausted themselves. Herodotus and Thucydides had no successors, only continuators who tried to bridge the chronological gap between the two historians or to continue the story beyond the end of Thucydides’ texts. These efforts barely rose above the levels of annals, and the authors showed neither the critical skill nor the literary power of their great predecessors. Xenophon (c. 430–350 bce) was among those who attempted a continuation, but his more valuable contributions were in biography. Although history writing was still done in the Hellenistic Age (323 bce–330 ce), there was little improvement.