Light influences a number of chemical reactions that lead to spoilage of foods. These light-induced reactions include the destruction of chlorophyll (the photosynthetic pigment that gives plants their green colour), resulting in the bleaching of certain vegetables; the discoloration of fresh meats; the destruction of riboflavin in milk; and the oxidation of vitamin C and carotenoid pigments (a process called photosensitized oxidation). The use of packaging material that prevents exposure to light is one of the most effective means of preventing light-induced chemical spoilage.

History

Early freezing methods were based on the principle that mixing salt with ice results in temperatures well below 0 °C (32 °F). By the end of the 19th century, this method was being used commercially in the United States to freeze fish and poultry. By the 1920s Clarence Birdseye had developed two processes for freezing fish based on his quick freezing theory. His first patent, describing a method for preserving piscatorial products, involved placing food between two metal plates that were chilled by a calcium chloride solution to approximately −40 °C (−40 °F). The second process utilized two hollow metal plates that were cooled to −25 °C (−13 °F) by vaporization of ammonia. This freezing apparatus was the forerunner of the multiple plate freezer that is widely used in the modern food industry.

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The freezing process

The freezing of food involves lowering its temperature below 0 °C, resulting in the gradual conversion of water, present in the food, into ice. Freezing is a crystallization process that begins with a nucleus or a seed derived from either a nonaqueous particle or a cluster of water molecules (formed when the temperature is reduced below 0 °C). This seed must be of a certain size to provide an adequate site for the crystal to begin to grow. If physical conditions are conducive to the presence of numerous seeds for crystallization, then a large number of small ice crystals will form. However, if only a few seeds are initially available, then a few ice crystals will form and each will grow to a large size. The size and the number of ice crystals influence the final quality of many frozen foods; for example, the smooth texture of ice cream indicates the presence of a large number of small ice crystals.

In pure water, the freezing process is initiated by lowering the temperature to slightly below 0 °C, called supercooling. As ice crystals begin to grow, the temperature returns to the freezing point. During the conversion of liquid water to ice, the temperature of the system does not change. The heat removed during this step is called the latent heat of fusion (equivalent to 333 joules per gram of water). Once all the water is converted to ice, any additional removal of heat will result in a decrease in the temperature below 0 °C.

The freezing of foods exhibits a number of important differences from the freezing of pure water. Foods do not freeze at 0 °C. Instead, owing to the presence of different soluble particulates (solutes) in the water present in foods, most foods begin to freeze at a temperature between 0 and −5 °C (32 and 23 °F). In addition, the removal of latent heat in foods during freezing does not occur at a fixed temperature. As the water present in the food freezes into ice, the remaining water becomes more concentrated with solutes. As a result, the freezing point is further depressed. Therefore, foods have a zone of maximum ice crystal formation that typically extends from −1 to −4 °C (30 to 25 °F). Damage to food quality during freezing can be minimized if the temperature of the product is brought below this temperature range as quickly as possible.