diffusion of innovations

diffusion of innovations, model that attempts to describe how novel products, practices, or ideas are adopted by members of a social system. The theory of diffusion of innovations originated in the first half of the 20th century and was later popularized by American sociologist Everett M. Rogers in his book Diffusion of Innovations, first published in 1962.

Key elements of the theory include the innovation, the communication processes and channels of communication, the passage of time, the potential adopters, and the social system, all of which influence whether or not an innovation with be taken up by a given group. The innovation (the product, practice, or idea) need not be a new invention but must be perceived as new by individuals or other units of adoption. Its characteristics, such as relative advantage, compatibility, malleability, and complexity, influence the likelihood that it will be adopted. Communication is essential for the diffusion and subsequent acceptance or rejection of an innovation, which can alter the structure and function of a social system. Change is measured by the numbers of people, groups, or institutions adopting the innovation over time. Consequently, the key variables of interest are time (earliness of knowing about innovation), rate (adoption of different innovations in a social system or within and among different social groups), and innovativeness (the degree to which groups or organizations adopt new ideas). Analyses can establish the flow of influence, offer charts of the diffusion curve, develop mathematical models of the diffusion process, and test out contributions of key elements and characteristics.

Development of the theory

The diffusion model developed through an interest in social transformation and explorations of the consequences of the development, spread, and adoption or rejection of new products, activities, and ideas. For example, anthropologists studied the introduction of the horse within and among indigenous populations of North America, the spread and modification of dance ceremonies among Native American groups, and the spread of corn (maize) cultivation from America to Europe. Early sociological studies included the examination of social and legal trends, such as the influence of a city on surrounding areas, the diffusion of governing practices, and the use and consequences of technology. Rural sociologists focused on the spread of new ideas among farmers and subsequent changes in agricultural practices.

Lessons learned from diffusion studies in anthropology, sociology, education, folklore, communication, marketing, economics, and public health have helped contemporary scholars and practitioners transform the diffusion of innovation model from a descriptive model into a proscriptive one. Today, diffusion theory commonly is used as an analytic framework for understanding and measuring social change and, in practical application, to guide the design and evaluation of products, programs, and communication strategies.

Characteristics of innovations

Innovations that are perceived to be of lower social or economic costs, that provide a good fit with values and current practices, and that are of low complexity are more likely to be adopted than those carrying high costs, representing a variance with common values, and appearing to be difficult to understand, to communicate, or to use. Those innovations flexible enough to withstand some change to provide a better fit with prevailing practices and cultures hold more appeal. This flexibility, sometimes labeled a reinvention, involves change in some of the characteristics of the innovation to increase compatibility of the innovation with the existing social system. It is also of importance whether or not potential users can observe as well as try the innovation without undue sacrifice or commitment.

The role of communication and time

Communication channels and the agents of change affect the diffusion process as well. Communication channels include face-to-face communication and mass communication, while agents of change are those individuals who bring innovations to members of a social system. Agents of change may be members of the community or individuals outside the social structure of the community. Diffusion analysis must consider who talks to whom, who is considered influential and trustworthy, and who has easy access to or is barred from various communication channels. Characteristics of the potential adopters are of critical concern. Overall, factors such as socioeconomic status, culture, gender, race, age, cultural norms, religion, education, social support, and family ties all influence access to and perceptions of the innovation.

A vital aspect of the diffusion model, and one closely linked to an analysis of adopters, is the consideration of time. The population is often divided into groups based on the time it takes for people to adopt the innovation. The groups are innovators, early adopters, early majority, late majority, and late adopters. Innovators, for example, are often viewed as creative but marginal individuals. Early adopters, close to sources of communication, are often highly integrated into the social system. They often carry a high degree of opinion leadership, are respected by their peers, and serve as role models for others. It is only when these respected members of a community consider, discuss, and adopt the innovation that wide diffusion takes place. Those in the early majority generally interact frequently with peers and are exposed to various sources of information. Those in the late majority are people who are further removed from key communication channels or who remain skeptical and adopt only after pressure from their peers or out of economic necessity.

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In older articulations of the model, those who are introduced to the innovation late and who adopt late were called laggards. Often, people who fall into this category are distant, disadvantaged, or marginalized. These members of the population are often further removed from key channels of communication than are those who are able to learn about and adopt the innovation early. They are also more likely to lack resources, including time and money, to take chances. Often, they are socially isolated.

Social systems and consequences of adoption

Diffusion occurs within a social system. The analysis of the diffusion process considers the members or units of a social system, including individuals, groups, organizations, or subsystems. The social system includes structural, political, economic, as well as geographic characteristics. The structure may be considered the patterned arrangements of the various units, such as the formal hierarchical structure of a bureaucratic organization with formal laws and rules. Norms may be just as powerful in other, less formal groups. Social factors also consider how decisions are made and whether or not people have an array of options or, at minimum, the freedom to adopt or reject the proposed innovation. Decisions may be individually based, be communal (arrived at through consensus), or be mandated (made through the imposition of authority). Those designing public health safety programs, for example, see initial strong adoption of practices such as seat belt use with the passage of laws (an authority-based decision) but diminished use when consensus is not considered and if enforcement is lacking. In general, the structure of a social system can facilitate or impede diffusion of innovations and thereby influence the rate of adoption of the innovation over time.

In the last stage of diffusion studies, consequences of innovations are documented and analyzed. Three classifications of consequences are often considered: direct or indirect consequences, anticipated versus unanticipated consequences, and desirable or undesirable consequences.