dao
- Chinese:
- “way,” “road,” “path,” “course,” “speech,” or “method”
- Wade-Giles romanization:
- tao
- Key People:
- Zhuang Zhou
- Laozi
- Liezi
dao, the fundamental concept of Chinese philosophy. Articulated in the classical thought of the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods of the Zhou dynasty (1046–256 bce), dao exerted considerable influence over subsequent intellectual developments in China.
Meanings of dao
The word for this concept, dao, indicates a “way” in the sense of a road or a path. Owing to the contextual nature of Chinese languages and depending upon its use in a sentence, dao can function as a noun or a verb. It may indicate the road upon which one travels, the act of wayfaring or traveling down a road, or even the act of way-making by leading someone down or constructing a road. It may also refer to speech, especially in philosophical or moral education.
In the latter sense, dao may refer to a philosophical tradition: a thinker’s disciples maintain his dao, which they subsequently transmit (in both speech and writing) to their own students, and so forth. For example, Confucius (551–479 bce) believed that he was restoring the dao of the ancient sage-kings. Mencius (flourished 4th century bce) was subsequently considered the orthodox interpreter of Confucius’s dao. The great 12th-century-ce thinker Zhu Xi believed that he was resurrecting daotong, the transmission of the Confucian Way, which he claimed had been lost in the previous few centuries. Likewise, the tradition that subsequently became known as Daoism (daojia) traced itself back to thinkers such as Laozi (assumed, if he existed, to have been a contemporary of Confucius) and the 4th-century-bce sage Zhuang Zhou, or Zhuangzi (“Master Zhuang”). Those thinkers and their disciples promoted the Cosmic Dao, which they claimed was a greater guide to life and good government than any human teaching.
Interpretations of dao
The Cosmic Dao
Dao is a philosophical concept that is multifaceted and has several interpretations. The most profound interpretation is that of the Cosmic Dao, the Way of the cosmos, which is evident in nature (tian). Thus, the philosophical and spiritual text the Daodejing (c. 300 bce) declares the Cosmic Dao to be the “source” of the universe. The Zhuangzi, a text attributed to the late 4th-century sage of the same name, celebrates the spontaneous transformations of the order of nature.
The Cosmic Dao is not a transcendent source in the sense of being a metaphysical first principle beyond the physical world; rather, it is immanent, always present and always emerging. It is creative but is not a supreme creator god, whether personal or impersonal, who gives birth to the world through divine contemplation or the exertion of a supreme will. Instead, the Cosmic Dao incessantly generates the ten thousand things (a metaphor for the world), giving rise in its fluctuation to the complementary polarities of yin and yang. It is chang, constant and eternal, and tiandao, the order of nature that manifests itself spontaneously (ziran). Human beings, whose society and culture are marked by artifice and constraint, can hope only to attune themselves to its mysterious transformations but receive no special favour. As the Daodejing says, the Cosmic Dao is buren (see ren), “no special lover of humanity.”
Finally, the Cosmic Dao is associated with nonbeing (wu) in the sense that it is not any particular thing in the universe but rather the totality of all things as well as the matrix within which they come into and pass out of being. The thinker Wang Bi (226–249 ce), who developed much of the terminology of Chinese ontology (bentilun), provided a vision of the Cosmic Dao as a sort of transcendent “pure being.” Even so, this pure being is not a metaphysical first principle that is radically separate from lesser beings. It is, as Wang says, the “Great Note” that harmonizes the other notes (beings) that constitute the symphony of the universe.
The human and kingly ways
Another influential interpretation of dao conceives of it as the particular “way” of a thing or class of things. As the universe has its own natural way of emerging and acting, so too does each thing or class of things have its own manner of development. The dao of each thing is incorporated into and implicated within the Cosmic Dao, and it flourishes or stagnates depending upon the degree to which it harmonizes with or strays from the Dao. Humanity flourishes when the human way (rendao) attunes itself to the Cosmic Dao. Similarly, government flourishes when the kingly dao (wangdao) accords with nature’s way.
