Traditional Plains peoples shared a cultural ethos that interwove expectations of individual competency with those of obligation to the community. For instance, the status of an individual or family was enhanced when they were generous to the poor, shared goods with relatives, engaged in lavish hospitality, and cooperated with others.

There were no hereditary social classes, but there was ranking of individuals. The son of a wealthy family would have an early advantage over a poor child in that he could rely on his family for the material support necessary to pay for craft and ritual apprenticeships, initiation fees for military societies, bridewealth, and feasts. As time passed, however, such a man would have to prove himself independently. A poor man, in contrast, might spend his youth in straitened circumstances but could win wealth and standing through prowess at war or ritual. In some tribes orphans were the preferred marriage partners, as they had proved themselves to be responsible individuals and capable providers at a young age.

Most tribes ranked war exploits, but they did not all evaluate particular deeds alike. Intertribal fighting seldom involved major tribal forces; it was carried out mainly by raiding parties of a few warriors to avenge a death, to steal horses, and especially to gain glory. Counting coup—touching an enemy’s body in battle—was generally considered of greater moment than killing him. Stealing a valuable horse that had been picketed at its owner’s lodge was also considered a feat of renown; in many tribes, groups of young boys developed stealth by the socially approved practice of attempting to steal food from their neighbours’ lodges. In the event of a group’s success, the lodge residents often held a feast in the boys’ honour; such a celebration of the thieves’ skill exempted the household from further plunder.

Most tribes had a number of religious and secular associations. Among the latter were military groups such as the Hidatsa Dog Society; these generally functioned as police and sometimes as rivals for battle honours. Among the Crow, for example, there were two outstanding societies, the Lumpwoods and the Foxes, that were of equal rank and competed fiercely in feats of war. The Arapaho, Atsina, Blackfoot, Mandan, and Hidatsa ranked their military societies in a series of age sets, groups of individuals of a similar age who functioned as a cohort. Distinctive regalia and membership privileges in each society were purchased collectively by each age set from the next older group, the exchange continuing until the oldest group sold all their materials and retired from the system. The number of societies varied. The Hidatsa at one time had as many as 10 military societies.

Women had their own ritual and secular associations. Where men’s groups were generally oriented toward raiding, women’s societies generally focused on the fertility of humans, animals, and crops, and on the turning of the seasons. Among the Mandan and Hidatsa, women’s societies were also age-graded; it has been reported that such women’s societies also existed among the Blackfoot, Arapaho, and Atsina.

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Native American: The Plains

Belief systems

The Plains tribes did not distinguish sharply between the sacred and the secular, although they certainly acknowledged that some things, such as the contents of sacred bundles, had more supernatural power than others. They attached much importance to visions, and their cultures generally included aspects of animism, a belief system in which natural phenomena such as animals, plants, the sun, moon, stars, thunder, and lighting are physical manifestations of spirit-beings.

Success in life was believed to depend in large measure on the intervention of these spirit-beings. The usual procedure for obtaining spirit help was to undertake a vision quest, in which a person would go to some lonely spot to fast and beg for aid; men might also mortify the flesh, though women usually did not. If the suppliant was successful, the spirit-being would provide detailed instructions for winning immunity in battle, curing illness, or obtaining other skills or powers; those who were very respectful might gain the protection of a guardian spirit. The quest for supernatural power through a vision or dream was important among all of the tribes and among both girls and boys; vision quests were often begun when a child was as young as six or seven years of age. Not everyone was successful in the vision quest, and among the Crow and some other tribes those with power were permitted to transfer it to others less fortunate.

All of the tribes had people who communed with the spirit world in order to perform acts of healing and shamanism. In most of the groups ordinary illnesses such as dysentery or headaches would be treated with common herbal remedies, while a shaman would be called in to diagnose and treat more serious illnesses. It was widely believed that illness was caused by intrusion of a foreign object in the body and that the shaman could cure the patient by extracting the item. If the extraction failed, there had presumably been some unwitting infraction of the rules as laid down by the shaman’s supernatural sponsor. Shamans were not required to take every case, as their reputation depended upon their ability to cure; among the Teton they could refuse after examining a patient. Other services they might render included locating enemies and game animals and even finding lost objects. Arapaho, Atsina, and Cheyenne shamans were reported to walk on fire as a proof of their powers.

In some tribes it is difficult to distinguish the role of the shaman, who had direct contact with the supernatural, from that of the priest, who obtained his knowledge from other practitioners. In some cases the two roles were more or less combined; among the Cheyenne the main road to supernatural power was through acquisition of ritual knowledge from one who was already a priest, although power was also sought through visions. Thus the same individual may have acted in some situations as a shaman and in others as a priest.

Among the tribes having a clear belief in a spirit superior to all other spirits were the Cheyenne, the Atsina, and the Pawnee. The Cheyenne, for instance, held that “the Wise One above” knew better than all other creatures; further, he had long ago left the Earth and retired to the sky. In smoking ceremonies the first offering of the pipe was always made to him. Some of the other tribes, such as the Crow, believed instead in multiplicity of deities, each of whom possessed more or less equal power.

Ceremonial and ritual were well developed on the Plains. They ranged from very simple rites to complicated proceedings involving weeks of preparation and performances that lasted for several days. A number of common ritual elements were used alone or combined in various ways. Sacred bundles, also called medicine bundles, figured prominently in rituals throughout the area. In some cases the bundle was a personal one, the contents of which had been suggested by a guardian spirit, while in others it was a tribal property with a long, or even mythological, history. Bundles were handled reverently and opened according to definite rules. The opening of the Cheyenne sacred arrow bundle, for instance, was the focus of an elaborate tribal rite extending over four days.

The sacred number for most tribes was four, often said to represent the cardinal directions. A less common number was seven, representing the cardinal direction plus “up” or the sky, “down” or the world below, and “centre” or the location of the ritual. Often dances, songs, or other parts of a ritual were performed in or by groups of four or seven. Many rituals used an altar or other specially prepared space in a ceremonial structure for arranging sacred objects or smoking them with incense. The dimensions of the altar and the symbols that were used varied with the tribe and the ceremony. Ritual purification in a sweat lodge was required in connection with many ceremonies.

One important ritual found among about 20 tribes is known inaccurately in English as the Sun Dance. The indigenous terms for this ritual varied: the Cheyenne phrase may be translated as “New Life Lodge”; the Atsina term means “Sacrifice Lodge.” While the central features were the same among all the tribes, there were many differences in detail. The sacrament was always held in summer, when the whole tribe could gather; those pledging to undertake the most arduous form of the ritual usually did so in thanks for having been relieved of some grave difficulty.

The ceremony was an annual event among the Teton but occurred at quite irregular intervals among the Crow. The pledger was instructed by a priest or ritual specialist; weeks or even months were needed for spiritual preparation and to gather the food, gifts, and other materials the pledger and his family were expected to provide. A ceremonial structure was built in the centre of the camp circle (or among the Mandan, in a very large earth lodge dedicated to this and other rituals); before it was erected, offerings were placed in the fork of the central log. Within the structure was an altar upon which buffalo skulls were laid. The pledger and other participants fasted and danced for several days, praying for power. A widespread, though not universal, feature of the ceremony was self-mortification by some of the participants. A ritual expert pinched a centimetre or two of skin on the pledger’s breast or back, pierced through it with a sharp instrument, and inserted a wooden skewer through the piercing. One end of a rope or thong was tied to the skewer, the other end being attached to the centre pole or a buffalo skull. The dancer leaned back until the line was taut and strained until the line tore through his piercings. Among the Teton the practice also involved piercing the dancers’ legs.