In the years 1841–43, the repressive measures of the government reached ever more decisive extremes: Bauer was debarred from teaching; Feuerbach did not even attempt to teach; and Ruge was enjoined to publish the Hallische in Prussia instead of Leipzig. (Actually, he transferred it to Dresden and changed its name to the Deutsche Jahrbücher.) Here also appeared one of Ruge’s major writings, “Die Hegelsche Rechtsphilosophie und die Politik unserer Zeit” (1842; “The Hegelian Philosophy of Right and the Politics of our Time”), in which Ruge denounced Hegel’s political conservatism, charging that his contemplative reason was reduced to the acceptance of existing conditions, to the exclusion of every effort to modify reality, and to the absolutizing of the Prussian state as the model of an ideal state. Ruge’s journal was suppressed early in 1843, but in March he published in Switzerland his Anekdota zur neuesten deutschen Philosophie und Publicistik (“Anecdotes for the Latest German Philosophy and Political Journalism”), containing articles by Bauer, Ruge, Marx, Feuerbach, and others.

Feuerbach’s article developed the claim that the method of speculative philosophy, which is the ultimate form of theology, is to invert the subject and predicate—i.e., to substantialize the abstract and to treat concrete determinations as attributes or “logical accidents” of hypostatized abstractions. The inversion of speculative propositions, he held, leads to the philosophical reappropriation of the human essence; the philosophy of the future will achieve mastery through the negation of the Hegelian philosophy—and this is exactly what he entitled his forthcoming book: Grundsätze der Philosophie der Zukunft (1843; “Basic Principles of the Philosophy of the Future”). In place of the immediate Absolute of Hegel, he argued, there must be substituted the immediate individual existent—corporeal, sensible, and rational. The individual’s reappropriation of himself will be possible whenever his need to transcend his own limitations finds fulfillment in another person and in the totality of the human species: “thus man is the measure of reason.”

Meanwhile, a schism had been ripening in the left wing: (1) On the one hand, there were the “Free Berliners” (initially the young Friedrich Engels, later to become Marx’s theoretician, the radical anarchist Max Stirner, and the Bauer brothers), who, deeming themselves faithful to Hegel, developed a philosophy of self-consciousness (understood in a subjective and superindividualistic sense) directed toward treating social and historical problems with aristocratic intellectual detachment. (2) On the other hand, there was the group that included Ruge, the publicist Moses Hess, the scholarly poet Heinrich Heine, and Marx. Influenced in their theories by Feuerbach, this group directed radicalism toward an experience deepened by the classical Enlightenment and embraced the rising socialism. They thus involved Hegel in their critique of the political, cultural, and philosophical conditions of the time. The most widely known result of the first trend was Stirner’s book Der Einzige und sein Eigentum (1845; “The Individual and His Property”), in which the fundamental thesis of individualistic anarchism can be discerned. The unique entity, in Stirner’s view, is the individual, who must rebel against the attempt made by every authority and social organization to impose upon him a cause not his own and must be regarded as a focus of absolutely free initiative—a goal to be reached by emancipating himself from every idea-value imposed by tradition.

The work of Marx

The years between 1840 and 1844, however, saw the emergence of a figure incomparably more representative of the crisis of German Hegelianism than any already cited, that of Karl Marx, who was destined to guide the experience of this crisis toward a revolution of world historical scope. Marx’s study of Hegel dates from his university years in Berlin, the earliest result of which was his doctoral dissertation with the exceedingly important preparatory notes, in which he ventured an original application of Hegelian method to the problem of the great crises in the history of philosophy. At first a friend of Bauer, Marx clung closely, however, to the democratic wing of the left. In 1843 he completed an important critical study of Hegel’s Philosophy of Right, in which he reproached Hegel for having absolutized into an ideal state the Prussian state of the time. Such absolutizing, he charged, lent itself to generalizations of broad critical scope with respect to the idealistic procedure of hypostatizing the Idea and brought about (as allegorical derivatives from it) certain concrete political and social determinations, such as family, classes, and the state powers. Not yet a communist, Marx nonetheless completed, in his Kritik der hegelschen Staatsrechts (1843; Critique of Hegel’s Constitutional Law), a criticism of the erroneous relationship initiated in Hegel between society and the state, which was destined to lead Marx from the criticism of the modern state to that of modern society and its alienation.

It will be recalled that Hegel had likewise proposed the concept of alienation, describing the dialectic as a movement of the Absolute that was determined by its alienating and then regaining itself (thus overcoming the self-negation). Already in the Ökonomisch-philosophische Manuskripte aus dem Jahre 1844 (1932; Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844), Marx had enunciated a general critique of the Hegelian dialectic that revealed its a priori nature, which, in Marx’s view, was mystifying and alienated inasmuch as Hegel did nothing but sanction, by a method inverted with respect to real relationships, the alienation of all the concrete historical and human determinations.

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philosophy of history: History as a process of dialectical change: Hegel and Marx

Marx then directed himself against his former colleagues on the left—against Bauer in his Die heilige Familie (1845; The Holy Family) and against Stirner in his Die deutsche Ideologie (1845–46; The German Ideology), criticizing their “ideologism” (i.e., the illusion that idealism can be carried into the revolutionary camp since it is ideas that make history). The historical materialism that Marx counterposed against idealism expressed the conviction that the basis comprising the relations of production, both economic and social, conditions the superstructure of political, juridical, and cultural institutions and that the interchange among these spheres of production within the totality of a historical epoch must be designed to overcome their contradictions. This materialism, though not belonging any more to Hegelianism, was destined nonetheless to remain linked to it by continuing polemical relationships and overlapping problem areas throughout the subsequent history of the movement (see also dialectical materialism).

Along with Marx must, of course, be mentioned his colleague Friedrich Engels, who was more tied, however, to the Hegelian conception of the dialectic—particularly regarding the dialectic of nature—than Marx was.