Our editors will review what you’ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article.
- Social Sci LibreTexts - The Genus Australopithecus
- National Center for Biotechnology Information - PubMed Central - Phylogeny of early Australopithecus: new fossil evidence from the Woranso-Mille (central Afar, Ethiopia)
- University of Michigan Library - Deep Blue Repositories - Gigantopithecus and its relationship to Australopithecus
- Maropeng and Sterkfontein Caves - Cradle of Humankind World Heritage Site - Australopithecus
- Milne Library - The History of Our Tribe: Hominini - Australopithecus/Paranthropus aethiopicus
- The Royal Society Publishing - Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences - From Australopithecus to Homo: the transition that wasn't†
- American Association for the Advancement of Science - Science: Fossil Find Represents a New Species of Australopithecus
- A-Z Animals - Australopithecus
- Academia - Australopithecus Group
Australopithecus robustus and A. boisei are also referred to as “robust” australopiths. In addition to a well-developed skull crest for the attachment of the temporalis (or temporal muscle, which is used in chewing), other specializations for strong chewing include huge cheek teeth, massive jaws, and powerfully built cheekbones that project forward. These features make the skulls of the robusts look very different from those of modern humans.
Robert Broom recovered the first specimen of a robust australopith in 1938 from the South African cave site of Kromdraai. He gave it the name Paranthropus robustus and noted its hominin features as well as its exaggerated chewing apparatus. Between 1948 and 1952, similar fossils were unearthed from Swartkrans, South Africa, which proved to be another of the richest sources of early hominins. A third source of P. robustus is the limestone cave of Drimolen, South Africa. All three sites are located within a few kilometres of one another in a valley about 30 km (18 miles) west of Johannesburg. As with the remains of A. africanus, the only method of dating the P. robustus remains is via biostratigraphy, which indicates that P. robustus dates from about 1.8–1.5 mya. Specimens attributed to Homo also occur in the same deposits, but these are much rarer.
Broom’s choice of the name Paranthropus (meaning “to the side of humans”) reflects his view that this genus was not directly ancestral to later hominins, and it has long been viewed as a distant side branch on the human evolutionary tree. Its specializations for strong chewing certainly make it appear bizarre. The choice of the name robustus referred to its heavily built jaws, teeth, and supporting structures. Its body was relatively petite, however, males weighing about 40 kg (88 pounds) and females about 32 kg (70 pounds). Its brain size is 523 cc, which is both absolutely and relatively larger than that of the earlier South African australopith, A. africanus, with its average brain of 448 cc.
The 1959 discovery of a nearly complete cranium by Mary Leakey at Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania, first revealed the presence of a robust australopith in East Africa. The fossil was dated to 1.8 mya, and it was the first African hominin whose age was accurately measured by argon analysis. It shares with its South African cousin the combination of chewing specializations. The Olduvai specimen, sometimes called “Nutcracker Man,” is placed its own species, A. boisei—which dates to 2.3–1.3 mya and has been identified at a number of sites in Kenya and Ethiopia. Because of the greatly exaggerated features related to mastication in A. boisei, it is sometimes referred to as “hyper-robust.” It lived at the same time as species of early Homo, but there is some evidence that Homo and A. boisei preferred different habitats. Despite its enormous chewing apparatus, it had a relatively small body, the males weighing about 49 kg (108 pounds) and females 34 kg (75 pounds). A. robustus and A. boisei fossils are found with mammals that are usually associated with dry grassland habitats. Studies examining carbon isotope ratios found in tooth enamel suggests A. boisei was a grass eater.