20th-century Norwegian literature

20th-century Norwegian literature, the body of written works produced in the Bokmål and Nynorsk forms of the Norwegian language between about 1900 and the turn of the 21st century.

For an overview of Norwegian literature from the 16th century to the present, see Norwegian literature.

Before World War II

During the 1890s, established Norwegian writers came under fire from a new generation. The manifesto of new ideas was an essay published in 1890 in the periodical Samtiden (“The Present Age”) by Knut Hamsun, “Fra det ubevidste sjæleliv” (“From the Unconscious Life of the Mind”), which demanded attention to what was individual and idiosyncratic rather than typical. Hamsun was impatient with contemporary emphasis on social problems, and his early novels—Sult (1890; Hunger), Mysterier (1892; Mysteries), and Pan (1894)—exemplified these ideas; his later novels, such as Markens grøde (1917; Growth of the Soil), were less extreme but still showed a strong, sometimes savage irony. Hamsun won the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1920.

Lyric poetry at this time flourished with Sigbjørn Obstfelder, who had a close affinity with the Symbolist movement, and Nils Collett Vogt, who produced some of the best lyrics of the 1890s. In drama Gunnar Heiberg, who combined a sharply satirical wit with a lyric deftness, expressed the new spirit in Kong Midas (1890), Gerts have (1894; “Gert’s Garden”), Balkonen (1894; The Balcony), and Kjærlighetens tragedie (1904; The Tragedy of Love). Sharing Hamsun’s preoccupation with the irrational side of human conduct was Hans E. Kinck, a writer of considerable power and penetration. In his verse drama Driftekaren (1908; “The Drover”) and long novel Sneskavlen brast (1918–19; “The Avalanche Broke”), Kinck showed himself to be a more reflective and analytical writer than Hamsun.

The real achievements of Norwegian literature in the first half of the 20th century were in the novel and lyric poetry. Drama was not conspicuous, except for the plays of Heiberg and Nordahl Grieg. In the early decades of the century, regionalism was a strong element, particularly in the novel; and authors adopted language colored by dialect, thus becoming identified with their region. Kristofer Uppdal, of the mid-north region of Trøndelag, wrote a remarkable work—a 10-volume novel cycle, Dansen gjenom skuggeheimen (1911–24; “The Dance Through the Shadow World”). The novel also considered conflicts arising from the spread of industrialism, which Norway underwent later than did other European countries. The novelist and dramatist Oskar Braaten was closely affiliated with the labor movement, while Johan Falkberget wrote with understanding and historical insight about the miners in Røros in the trilogy Christianus Sextus (1927–35) and in Nattens brød (1940; “Bread of Night”). Sigrid Undset, who won the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1928, set her novels in many different ages, and their concern was to examine women’s loyalties within the framework of their role in society. A long historical novel, Kristin Lavransdatter (1920–22), is a masterpiece of Norwegian literature. Her later novels, Gymnadenia (1929; The Wild Orchid) and Den brændende busk (1930; The Burning Bush), were overtly influenced by her conversion to Roman Catholicism. Olav Duun, also of the mid-north region, revealed his insight into life as endless conflict in a six-volume novel cycle about the development of a family of laborers through four generations—Juvikfolke (1918–23; The People of Juvik).

There were other accomplished and popular lyric poets writing prior to World War II, all of whom used traditional forms and regular meter and rhyme. They include Herman Wildenvey, who combined realism and romanticism in his light but elegant verse, and Olaf Bull, a more learned poet than Wildenvey. Bull vented in his meticulously crafted poems feelings of existential anxiety as well as yearnings for a woman’s love.

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Arnulf Øverland, a highly public figure who wrote poems and essays and was a contributor to the Marxist journal Mot Dag (“Toward Day”), actively opposed both organized religion and modernist trends. Other socially committed writers of the period between the World Wars were Nordahl Grieg, Helge Krog, and Sigurd Hoel. Grieg, a poet, novelist, and playwright, was an avowed leftist who in his play Vår ære og vår makt (1935; “Our Honor and Our Glory”) assailed profiteering during World War I. He addressed pacifism in Nederlaget (1937; Defeat). Krog, best known for his dramas Konkylien (1929; “The Sounding Shell”) and Opbrudd (1936; Break-Up), was also a fine essayist and social critic. Although he shared the Mot Dag group’s political views, Hoel in his fiction probed the root causes of social ills via Freudian psychology rather than Marxist theories. His novel En dag i oktober (1931; One Day in October) created a public commotion because of its critical depiction of bourgeois marriage. He was at his best in portraits of the times, such as of the 1920s in Syndere i sommersol (1927; Sinners in Summertime) and of the Nazi occupation years in Møte ved milepelen (1947; Meeting at the Milestone).

Tarjei Vesaas is one of several writers—among them Cora Sandel and Aksel Sandemose—who opened new horizons for Norwegian prose before and after World War II, each in distinctive ways. Vesaas, who wrote in Nynorsk (New Norwegian), has been called Norway’s most provincial international writer. His works—especially Det store spelet (1934; The Great Cycle)—are firmly rooted in the Norwegian countryside, but their concerns are universal. Fuglane (1957; The Birds), through highly symbolic and sensitive prose, describes life from the perspective of a mentally challenged man. In both Kimen (1940; The Seed) and Huset i mørkret (1945; The House in the Dark), the latter an allegorical story of Norway during the Nazi occupation, Vesaas examined the forces of evil. Sandel was a French-influenced novelist and author of short stories. Her largely autobiographical Alberte trilogy (1926–39), a depiction of a young woman’s often torturous journey toward maturity and her artistic calling, resonated powerfully among women readers. Freudian, primitivist, and radical are among the epithets typically applied to Sandemose. A novelist and journalist, he was throughout all of his writing intent on attacking the self-satisfied but hypocritical petite bourgeoisie. His novels probe the depths of the human mind, especially its irrationality, through their use of allusion, fantasy, and broken chronologies. Sandemose also exhibited a profound understanding of a child’s world with novels such as En flyktning krysser sitt spor (1933; A Fugitive Crosses His Tracks). In Varulven (1958; The Werewolf), a novel about love, murder, and jealousy, he delved into the psychological forces behind Nazism.

After World War II

Among the Scandinavian countries, Norway had some of the most painful experiences of World War II, which were widely reflected in the country’s postwar literature. While Finns, whose country also suffered greatly during the war, tended to concentrate on realistic depictions of the war itself, Norwegian authors focused on the nature of evil. Jens Bjørneboe did so in his novels (e.g., Før hanen galer [1952; “Before the Cock Crows”]) and plays in a very concrete and drastic manner. In later works, such as Frihetens øyeblikk (1966; Moment of Freedom), he probed the nature of evil across all of Western civilization. In her early short stories Torborg Nedreaas, also a politically committed author, retold stories from the war years, but she did so from a woman’s point of view. However, it was her Musikk fra en blå brønn (1960; Music from a Blue Well), about a young girl’s growing up, that brought her fame. Her focus remained always on the societal forces bearing down on the vulnerable individual.

Another important postwar literary figure was Johan Borgen, a novelist and short-story writer. Like Sandemose, he explored the darker sides of the human psyche and, in particular, the process of identity formation. He is best known for the Lillelord trilogy (1955–57; Eng. trans. in 1 vol. as Lillelord). Jeg (1959; “I”) is more experimental in form but continues Lillelord’s exploration of the question of identity in a self-reflexive manner.

Rolf Jacobsen was one of the early modernists in Norwegian poetry. As early as the 1930s he used free verse and vivid images to express his concerns—such as his worries, especially in the 1970s, about the destruction of the environment—which are remarkably modern and account for his lasting popularity. The real champion of lyric modernism, however, was Paal Brekke, who from the late 1940s assailed the materialistic values of affluent Western society. Other notable modernists include Olav H. Hauge, writing in Nynorsk about everyday life, and Stein Mehren, a philosophical poet, essayist, and painter. Inger Hagerup and Marie Takvam are both best known for stylistically traditional love poems; Hagerup is also known for her poems written for children.

As in other European countries, the late 1960s and ’70s in Norway saw the rise of a new generation of radical writers advocating politically engaged, socially revolutionary literature. This so-called Profil group, named after a journal, includes Tor Obrestad, Dag Solstad, Espen Haavardsholm, and Edvard Hoem. Many of their novels freely mixed documentary materials with fiction, as in Obrestad’s Sauda! Streik! (1972; “Sauda! Strike!”), but what united them all was a shared belief in the Maoist interpretation of Marxism-Leninism. In later works their tone changed. Some, like Solstad in Roman 1987 (1987; “Novel”), gave an accounting of the earlier era. Others, like Hoem, also a playwright, returned to the traditional novel (Frøken Dreyers musikkskole [2000; “Miss Dreyer’s Music School”]). Øystein Lønn, who debuted in the 1960s, critiqued modern society in novels and short stories characterized by their precise language, black humor, and open endings.

Lars Saabye Christensen, who first gained popularity with his novel Beatles (1984), won high praise for Halvbroren (2001; The Half Brother), a novel chronicling a family’s fate over several generations; its style successfully combined realistic narration with the fantastic. Jan Kjærstad’s breakthrough novel Homo Falsus; eller, det perfekte mord (1984; “Homo Falsus; or, The Perfect Murder”) exhibits postmodern features; his three-part “biography” of a fictional television celebrity, Jonas Wergeland, demonstrates how a skillful application of postmodernist strategies could lead to an exciting, multidimensional portrait of not just an individual but an entire epoch.

Jon Fosse published his first novel, Raudt, svart (“Red, Black”), in 1983. His plays were first staged in the 1990s, and he went on to develop an international reputation as a playwright. Fosse, who writes in Nynorsk, was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature in 2023.

Three very different women authors publishing in Norwegian at the turn of the 21st century were Bjørg Vik, a short-story writer who portrayed, from a feminist viewpoint, the lives of contemporary women in their efforts to cope with societal demands, new freedoms, and their own emotional desires; Herbjørg Wassmo, whose Tora and Dina trilogies became bestsellers in the 1980s and ’90s; and Cecilie Løveid, a postmodernist poet and playwright, one of the few who successfully challenged the Ibsenite tradition in drama. Løveid’s writing probes the potential for love, family, and close human relationships in modern society. Her work is playful and rich in imagery, humor, and sensuality, and it traverses various genres and art forms but always with women as protagonists.