tungsten processing
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- materials processing
- tungsten
tungsten processing, preparation of the ore for use in various products.
Tungsten exhibits a body-centred cubic (bcc) crystal lattice. It has the highest melting point of all metals, 3,410° C (6,170° F), and it has high conductivity for electricity. Owing to this unique combination of properties, it is used extensively as filaments for incandescent lamps, as electric contacts, and as electron emitters for electronic devices. Tungsten also has found wide application as an alloying element for tool steels and wear-resistant alloys. Tungsten carbides are used for cutting tools and hard-facing materials owing to their hardness and resistance to wear. The metal is brittle at room temperature but ductile and strong at elevated temperatures. Its alloys are employed in rocket-engine nozzles and other aerospace applications.
History
Tungsten in one of its mineral forms was given its name (meaning “heavy stone”) by the Swedish mineralogist A.F. Cronstedt in 1755. In 1781 another Swede, Carl Wilhelm Scheele, analyzed the mineral and identified lime and an acid that he called tungstic acid; the mineral was later named scheelite. In 1783 the Spanish chemists Juan José and Fausto Elhuyar obtained metallic tungsten by the reduction of its oxide with carbon; it was named wolfram (hence its chemical symbol, W) for the mineral wolframite, from which it was extracted. In 1847, Robert Oxland patented in Britain his manufacturing process for sodium tungstate, tungstic acid, and the pure metal, and in 1857, he patented his process for producing tungsten steel. But it was not until 1908, when William David Coolidge obtained his British patent for producing ductile tungsten wire, that the filament industry began. Tungsten-containing high-speed tool steel came to public attention when the Bethlehem Steel Company exhibited its products at the Exposition Universelle of 1900 in Paris. In 1927 the Krupp Laboratory at Essen, Ger., discovered that a serviceable product could be produced when the normally brittle tungsten carbide was mixed with a cemented material.
Ores
Major minerals of tungsten are essentially of two categories. The first is wolframite [(Fe, Mn)WO4], which contains iron and manganese tungstates in all proportions between 20 and 80 percent of each. The second is scheelite (CaWO4), which fluoresces a bright bluish colour under ultraviolet light.
Tungsten deposits occur in association with metamorphic rocks and granitic igneous rocks. The most important mines are in the Nan Mountains in the Kiangsi, Hunan, and Kwangtung provinces of China, which possesses about 50 percent of the world’s reserves. In Russia, mines are located in the northern Caucasus and around Lake Baikal. There are also deposits in Kazakhstan. About 90 percent of South Korea’s tungsten is at Sang Dong. Canada’s Northwest Territories is home to the largest tungsten mine in the Western world, and a mine at Chojlla, Bol., is the largest producer in South America. Deposits in the United States are spread along the Rocky Mountains.
Mining and concentrating
The Nan Mountains deposits are principally high-grade wolframite veins that are found outcropping in great numbers in many separate areas. These conditions are favourable for exploitation by small-scale operations. Open-pit methods have been used in Australia and Canada, while underground mining is generally necessary for other mines in the world.
Tungsten ores are beneficiated by crushing followed by gravity concentration. Flotation separation is used for scheelite that has been ground to a fine size to liberate the tungsten; this is further supplemented by leaching, roasting, and magnetic or high-tension separation when required.
Extraction and refining
Ammonium paratungstate
Tungsten ores frequently occur in association with sulfides and arsenides, which can be removed by roasting in air for two to four hours at 800° C (1,450° F). In order to produce ammonium paratungstate (APT), an intermediate compound in production of the pure metal, ores may be decomposed by acid leaching or by the autoclave-soda process. In the latter process, the ground ore is maintained for 11/2 to 4 hours in a solution of 10–18 percent sodium carbonate at temperatures of 190° to 230° C (375° to 445° F) and under a pressure of 14.1–24.6 kilograms per square centimetre (200–350 pounds per square inch). Prior to the removal of unreacted gangue by filtration, the acidity is adjusted to pH 9–9.5, and aluminum and manganese sulfates are added at 70°–80° C (160°–175° F) and stirred for one hour. This can eliminate phosphorus and arsenic and reduce silica to a level of 0.03–0.06 percent. Molybdenum is removed by adding sodium sulfide at 80°–85° C (175°–185° F) at a pH of 10, holding for one hour, and then acidifying the solution to pH 2.5–3 and stirring for seven to nine hours to precipitate molybdenum sulfide. The remaining sodium tungstate solution can be further purified by a liquid ion-exchange process, using an organic extractant consisting of 7 percent alamine-336, 7 percent decanol, and 86 percent kerosene. During the countercurrent flow of the extractant through the solution, tungstate ions transfer from the aqueous phase to the organic phase. The tungsten is then stripped from the extractant into an ammonia solution containing ammonium tungstate. The resultant APT solution is sent to an evaporator for crystallization.
In the acid-leaching process, scheelite concentrate is decomposed by hydrochloric acid in the presence of sodium nitrate as an oxidizing agent. This charge is agitated by steam spraying and is maintained at 70° C (160° F) for 12 hours. The resultant slurry, containing tungsten in the form of a solid tungstic acid, is diluted and allowed to settle. The tungstic acid is then dissolved in aqueous ammonia at 60° C (140° F) for two hours under stirring. Calcium from the resulting solution is precipitated as calcium oxalate, while phosphorus and arsenic may be removed by the addition of magnesium oxide, which forms insoluble phosphates and arsenates of ammonium and magnesium. Iron, silica, and similar impurities that form colloidal hydroxides are removed by adding a small amount of activated carbon and digesting for one to two hours. The solution is clarified through pressure filters and evaporated to obtain APT crystals.
Tungsten powder
When APT is decomposed to tungsten oxides, it displays different colours according to its composition: the trioxide is yellow, the dioxide is brown, and the intermediate oxide is purple-blue. APT can be decomposed to yellow oxide when heated to above 250° C (480° F) in a furnace under a flow of air. In the industrial production of tungsten, however, APT is usually decomposed to the intermediate oxide in a rotary furnace under a stream of hydrogen, which partially decomposes the ammonia in the crystals into nitrogen and hydrogen while maintaining a reducing atmosphere. The rotary furnace is divided by partitions into three zones maintained, respectively, at 850°, 875°, and 900° C (1,550°, 1,600°, and 1,650° F). The furnace is tilted at a small angle and rotated to provide a continuous flow of powder through the central holes of the partitions.
The blue oxide is then reduced by hydrogen to metallic tungsten powder in stationary furnaces at temperatures ranging from 550° to 850° C (1,025° to 1,550° F). In this process the oxide is loaded into “boats” made of Inconel, a nickel-based alloy noted for its strength at high temperatures. These are stoked into tubes, usually arranged in two rows, and the tubes are heated in three separate zones along their lengths.
APT may also be reduced by carbon, although the powder is usually contaminated with tungsten carbide and some mineral elements contained in the carbon. When APT and carbon are mixed and reacted at 650°–850° C (1,200°–1,550° F), the product is a blue oxide. When heated in the range of 900°–1,050° C (1,650°–1,925° F), the brown oxide is formed. For complete reduction to metal, a temperature higher than 1,050° C is required. The purity of the metal is about 95 percent.
Consolidation
Tungsten powder is compacted into bars or billets with a mechanical or isostatic press prior to sintering. The “green,” or unfired, density of these compacts, obtained from powder particle sizes ranging from 1 to 10 micrometres, is usually 65 to 75 percent of the theoretical. After being presintered at 1,000°–1,200° C (1,800°–2,200° F), tungsten bars of small diameter are sintered in a hydrogen atmosphere, with heat being provided by the direct-resistance method—that is, by an electric current passed through the bar. A spring attachment to the water-cooled clips holding each bar is necessary so that one end is free to move as the bar shrinks during sintering. The current is gradually increased to raise the temperature from room temperature to 2,700°–3,100° C (4,900°–5,600° F). After holding at the final temperature for 30 to 60 minutes, the density reaches 88.5 to 96 percent of the theoretical.
An indirect sintering process is used for large tungsten billets. The heating elements of the furnace are constructed of molybdenum strips and supported by molybdenum or tungsten frames, and they are surrounded by molybdenum heat shields. A slow heating in the early stage of sintering is essential for deoxidizing the material and releasing gases at a controlled rate. At higher temperatures—i.e., from 800° C up to the final sintering temperature of 2,400° C (4,350° F)—the heating rate also should be controlled, since too fast a temperature buildup within the billet would cause thermal stresses and would result in the cracking of the material. A final sintering for 10 hours is required for densification.
The metal and its alloys
Tungsten filaments doped with approximately 0.05 percent each of alumina, silica, and potassium oxide exhibit nonsagging behaviour and are used in incandescent lamps. Adding 1 to 2 percent thoria or zirconia increases the electron emission and high-temperature strength of tungsten wire, making it useful for electronic applications and electrodes for tungsten–inert-gas arc welding.
Tungsten infiltrated by silver and copper has excellent arc resistance, high resistance to welding, and high conductivity and current capacity. Consequently, it is widely used for electrical contacts, semiconductor supports, and rocket nozzles.
Tungsten is an important addition to tool steels, superalloys, and refractory alloys. Cobalt-chromium-tungsten alloys, produced under the trade name Stellites, are used for the hard-facing of wear-resistant valves, bearings, propeller shafts, cutting tools, and high-temperature tools.
Chemical compounds
Tungsten carbide (WC)
Tungsten carbides are divided into two categories. The first is the cemented tungsten carbides, also called hard metals, which are essentially WC produced from sintering a mixture of carbon black and hydrogen-reduced tungsten powder at 1,500° C (2,700° F). These are cemented using a cobalt or nickel binder, with or without other refractory carbides. The major uses of cemented carbides are for cutting and drilling tools, forming and drawing dies, and tire studs.
The second group is called fused or cast carbide, consisting of W2C and a eutectic mixture of WC and W2C. Harder but more brittle than the cemented carbide, it is used in wear-resisting applications such as anvils, guide sleeves in machines, and teeth and jaws for excavators.
Other compounds
Tungsten bronze, composed of tungstates of the alkali and alkaline-earth metals, is employed as a substitute for bronze in ornamental paints. Sodium tungstate is also used to produce phosphotungstic acid-type organic dyes and pigments, which are brilliant, light-resistant, and insoluble in water and linseed oil. Calcium and magnesium tungstates are used as phosphors in fluorescent light and television tubes. Ammonium tungstate and other compounds are used as catalysts in the petroleum industry for hydrotreating, hydrocracking, and polymerization.
Chun Tsin Wang