The transformation of photography from an analog medium relying on chemically developed light-sensitive emulsions to one using digital technologies for image capture and storage began in the late 1980s with the introduction of the first consumer digital cameras and in 1990 the first version of Adobe Photoshop, a program for adjusting and manipulating digital image files. Conceived as an extension of the conventional darkroom, the program adopted many of the traditional tools of black-and-white film photography but let photographers go even further. By giving photographers the ability to easily change the structure of an image, and even its contents, it called into question long-held assumptions about photographic veracity or documentary “truth value.” To some minds, it changed the very nature of the medium.

Digital photography’s full impact was not felt until the first decade of the new century. Even as late as 2001, news events—most significantly, the September 11 terrorist attacks in New York City and Washington, D.C.—were photographed primarily with film cameras. But because digital images could be transmitted and edited much more quickly, by decade’s end nearly all newspapers and magazines had transitioned to a digital workflow process, and their photographers were using digital cameras designed for professionals.

The transgressive aspect of digital photography was apparent even before its widespread adoption, as in 1982 when the august National Geographic magazine published an altered image of the Egyptian pyramids. Because the magazine’s cover required a vertical image, editors used early computer software to push the pyramids closer together than they appeared in the original film photograph. The manipulation of visual fact for increased visual impact extends back before computers into the 19th century, notably during the Crimean War and American Civil War, but a spate of incidents of digital alteration of news photographs in the first decade of the 21st century created an uproar and led to the establishment of journalistic codes of ethics intended to regulate the alteration of digital images. Several photojournalists lost their jobs after their published pictures were found to have been digitally doctored.

Whereas photojournalists and documentarians reacted with caution to what came to be called digital imaging, other types of photographers were generally enthusiastic about its possibilities. Many artists using photography as their medium developed creative approaches that took advantage of the seamless mutability of digitally altered images, extending a long history of photographic collage, double printing, and other pre-digital forms of manipulation. Among the early adopters were Aziz + Cucher (Anthony Aziz and Sammy Cucher), Andreas Gursky, and Loretta Lux, all of whom stretched the limits of what is believable about a photographic image. Digital alteration also influenced the spheres of fashion and celebrity, as photographers such as Inez van Lamsweerde and Vinoodh Matadin (working together as Inez & Vinoodh) remade the looks of models and movie stars. Magazines began to regularly send their cover photographs to digital retouchers to eliminate blemishes and minimize their models’ waistlines.

Arguably the most profound impact of digital photography was the proliferation of picture taking and picture sharing. Beginning in 2007, the year Apple introduced its first iPhone, so-called smartphones became ubiquitous, as did picture-sharing applications like Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram that enable users to upload pictures from phone to Internet in a matter of seconds. One result was an almost unfathomable archive of images of mundane events and everyday places, a virtual map of the world that finds its commercial equivalent in Google Earth, which incorporates both satellite views and Google Street View, an assemblage of ground-level pictures of human habitation.

At the same time, commercial, governmental, and military uses of photography expanded to include 24-hour surveillance of public sites and businesses, the remote targeting of drone missile strikes, databases of digital fingerprints, portraits on identification cards, and the development of facial-recognition software to aid in the identification of criminals and terrorists. Debates about the impact of the camera on civil liberties intensified as a result.

Photographers reacted to digital photography’s omnipresence in a variety of ways. Some—such as Chuck Close, Sally Mann, Deborah Luster, and Jerry Spagnoli—journeyed back to photographic processes of the 19th century, making daguerreotypes or working with wet-collodion plates, or—like Chris McCaw and Alison Rossiter—took to printing on outdated enlarging paper from the mid-20th century. Photographic books, predicted to be made obsolete by readily viewable online images, experienced a resurgent popularity, not only because digital printing reduced the cost of publication but also because books allowed photographers to control the narrative sequence and context in which their images are seen.

Others seized an opportunity to critically reflect on the new image environment in which they lived. Trevor Paglen, for example, photographed the light trails of spy satellites as they crossed the night sky. In addition, the convergence of still digital photographs and moving video images and the popularity of Web design tools that allowed for animation, motion control, and audio editing produced a creative arena in which photography was but one tool in the production of multimedia experiences. In the 21st century, photography was absorbed into both the contemporary art world and that of online digital communication, blurring its formerly distinct identity but vastly enhancing its importance as a visual medium.