20th-century lighthouses
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Construction
While masonry and brick were employed in lighthouse construction, concrete and steel were the most widely used materials. Structurally well suited and reasonably cheap, concrete especially lent itself to aesthetically pleasing designs for shore-based lighthouses.
Modern construction methods considerably facilitated the building of lighthouses in the open sea. On soft ground, the submerged caisson method was used, a system applied first in 1885 to the building of the Roter Sand Lighthouse in the estuary of the Weser River in Germany and then to the Fourteen Foot Bank light in the Delaware Bay, U.S. With this method, a steel caisson or open-ended cylinder, perhaps 12 metres (40 feet) in diameter, was positioned on the seabed. By excavation of sand, it was sunk into the seabed to a depth of possibly 15 metres (50 feet). At the same time, extra sections were added to the top as necessary so that it remained above high water level. The caisson was finally pumped dry and filled with concrete to form a solid base on which the lighthouse proper was built.
Where the seabed was suitable, it was possible to build a “float out” lighthouse, consisting of a cylindrical tower on a large concrete base that could be 15 metres (50 feet) in diameter. The tower was constructed in a shore berth, towed out to position, and then sunk to the seabed, where the base was finally filled with sand. Weighing 4.5 million kg (5,000 tons) or more, these towers relied on their weight for stability and required a leveled, prepared seabed. For greater stability during towing, the cylindrical tower itself often consisted of two or more telescopic sections, raised to full height by hydraulic jacks after being founded on the seabed. This design was pioneered largely in Sweden.
Another design, which was more independent of seabed conditions, was the conventional steel-piled structure used for offshore gas and oil rigs. Piles could be driven as deep as 46 metres (150 feet) into the seabed, depending on the underlying strata. The United States built about 15 light towers of this type; one prominent example was Ambrose Light off New York, which was dismantled in 2008.
Helicopters were widely employed in the servicing and maintenance of offshore towers, so that late 20th-century designs normally included a helipad. Even older cylindrical masonry structures of the previous era—including the Eddystone tower—had helipads fitted above their lanterns.
Illuminants
Wood fires were not discontinued until 1800, though after about 1550 coal, a more compact and longer-burning fuel, was increasingly favoured, particularly in northwestern Europe. A lighthouse in those days could consume 300 tons or more of coal a year. In full blaze, the coal fire was far superior to other forms of lighting, preferred by mariners to oil or candles. The disadvantage of both coal fires and early oil lamps and candles was the prodigious amount of smoke produced, which resulted in rapid blackening of the lantern panes, obscuring the light.
Oil lamps
In 1782 a Swiss scientist, Aimé Argand, invented an oil lamp whose steady smokeless flame revolutionized lighthouse illumination. The basis of his invention was a circular wick with a glass chimney that ensured an adequate current of air up the centre and the outside of the wick for even and proper combustion of the oil. Eventually, Argand burners with as many as 10 concentric wicks were designed. These lamps originally burned fish oil, later vegetable oil, and by 1860 mineral oil. The Argand burner became the principal lighthouse illuminant for more than 100 years.
In 1901 the Briton Arthur Kitson invented the vaporized oil burner, which was subsequently improved by David Hood of Trinity House and others. This burner used kerosene vaporized under pressure, mixed with air, and burned to heat an incandescent mantle. The vaporized oil burner was six times more powerful than the former oil wick lights. (The principle is still widely used for such utensils as camp stoves and pressure lamps.)
Gas lamps
Early proposals to use coal gas at lighthouses did not meet with great success. A gasification plant at the site was usually impracticable, and most of the lights were too remote for a piped supply. However, acetylene gas, generated in situ from calcium carbide and water, came into use around the turn of the 20th century, and its use increased following the introduction of the dissolved acetylene process, which by dissolving the acetylene in acetone made it safe to compress for storage.
Acetylene gas as a lighthouse illuminant had a profound influence on the advancement of lighthouse technology, mainly through the work of Gustaf Dalén of Sweden, who pioneered its application between 1900 and 1910. Burned either as an open flame or mixed with air in an incandescent mantle, acetylene produced a light equal to that of oil. Its great advantage was that it could be readily controlled. Thus, for the first time, automatic unattended lights were possible. Dalén devised many ingenious mechanisms and burners, operating from the pressure of the gas itself, to exploit the use of acetylene. Most of the equipment he designed entered general use. One device was an automatic mantle exchanger that brought a fresh mantle into use when the previous one had burned out. Another, economizing on gas, was the “sun valve,” an automatic day-night switch capable of extinguishing the light during the day. The switch used the difference in heat-absorbing properties between a dull black surface and a highly polished one, producing a differential expansion arranged by suitable mechanical linkage to control the main gas valve.
The acetylene system facilitated the establishment of many automatic unattended lighthouses in remote and inaccessible locations, normally requiring only an annual visit to replenish the storage cylinders and overhaul the mechanism. Liquefied petroleum gas, such as propane, also found use as an illuminant. Eventually, both oil and gas lamps were largely superseded by electricity.
Electric lamps
Electric illumination in the form of carbon arc lamps was first employed at lighthouses at an early date, even while oil lamps were still in vogue. The first of these was at South Foreland, England, in 1858, followed by a number of others. The majority of these, however, were eventually converted to oil, since the early arc lamps were difficult to control and costly to operate. In 1913 the Helgoland Lighthouse in the North Sea off Germany was equipped with arc lamps and searchlight mirrors to give a light of 38 million candlepower, the most powerful lighthouse in the world at that time.
The electric filament lamp, which came into general use in the 1920s, became the standard illuminant. Power output ranged from about 1,500 watts for the largest structures down to about 5 watts for buoys and minor beacons. Most lamps were of the tungsten-halogen type for better efficiency and longer life. As new types of electric lamps become available—for example, compact source discharge tube lamps and, in the early 21st century, light-emitting diodes (LEDs)—they were adopted for lighthouse use wherever suitable.