fracking

fracking, in natural gas and petroleum production, injection of a fluid at high pressure into an underground rock formation in order to open fissures and allow trapped gas or crude oil to flow through a pipe to a wellhead at the surface. Employed in combination with improved techniques for drilling horizontally through selected rock layers, fracking has opened up vast natural gas deposits in the United States and elsewhere. At the same time, the rapid rise of the practice, frequently in regions with no history of intensive oil and gas drilling, has raised concerns over its economic and environmental consequences.

The rise of a new technology

The technology of fracking has been in use since the 1940s, when liquids such as gasoline and crude oil were injected into poorly performing gas and oil wells in the central and southern United States with the aim of increasing their flow rate. Over the following decades, techniques were improved—for instance, treated water became the preferred fracturing medium, and finely graded sand or synthetic materials were adopted as a “proppant” to hold open the fractures. However, fracking did not enter its current modern phase until the 1990s, when the use of new steerable drill bit motors and electronic telemetering equipment allowed operators to direct borehole drilling and monitor the fracturing process with great precision. Shortly after, a market favourable for natural gas began to be created by high crude oil prices and by environmental regulations that discouraged the burning of oil and coal. In response to these conditions, developers began to open up so-called unconventional gas reservoirs—rock formations that previously had been left undeveloped because, under older production methods, they released the gas contained in them too slowly or in too small a quantity to be profitable.

Gas from unconventional deposits includes coal bed methane (gas located in the joints and fractures of coal seams), “tight gas” (gas locked into relatively impermeable sandstone or limestone formations), and shale gas (gas incorporated into dense microporous shales). Fracking has been used to recover all these gas types, but it has been practiced most prominently in recovering shale gas.

Horizontal drilling

Most gas shales are found in extensive seams hundreds or thousands of metres beneath the surface. These seams can be accessed through conventional vertical drilling, but the most productive method is usually horizontal drilling. In this technique a well is begun in the traditional way, with the auguring of a pilot hole usually some 6 to 15 metres (20 to 50 feet) deep. This is lined with a steel pipe some 40 to 50 cm (16 to 20 inches) in diameter, called the conductor casing, that is cemented into place. From there the borehole is drilled straight down, passing through numerous rock layers that may include contaminable freshwater aquifers used for private wells or municipal water supply. This portion of the borehole is lined with a cemented steel pipe called the surface casing. Depending on production needs or environmental regulations, another pipe, called the intermediate casing, may be cemented inside the surface casing.

At a predetermined “kickoff point” (in some cases above the shale formation, in other cases within it), a steerable drill bit is installed, and the borehole is turned to the horizontal. From there drilling continues within the shale, sometimes for another thousand metres or more. When this lateral section of the well is drilled, the entire borehole is lined with yet another pipe called the production casing. In many operations more than one well can be drilled from a single surface site (or “pad”), or more than one lateral section can radiate from a single borehole.

Fracturing

Once drilling and casing are completed, the production casing down the borehole is perforated by a tool that fires a series of small, aimed explosive charges through the wall of the pipe. At the surface the drilling rig is removed, and the fracking process begins. Typically, a fleet of tanker trucks converges on the pad along with several trailer-mounted hydraulic pumpers, blenders, and chemical-storage tanks, a self-contained control vehicle or trailer packed with electronics, and other equipment.

The amount of fresh water used in fracking a single shale gas well varies greatly, depending on the size of the well and the amount of fracturing that has to be done to release the gas: industry and regulatory sources give figures that range from approximately 7.5 million to 20 million litres (2 million to 5 million gallons)—roughly equivalent to the water contained in three to eight Olympic-size swimming pools. Environmental groups argue that, in new areas where fracking may grow dramatically, such consumption may represent an unsustainable use of the region’s fresh water. In response, the shale gas industry insists that fracturing for shale gas consumes less water per thermal unit than is used in coal and even conventional oil production. The water is obtained from sources determined by the market and regulations—e.g., purchased from the municipal water supply, pumped from local rivers or streams, reused from previous frack jobs. Sometimes it is piped directly to the pad, and often it is stored there in steel tanks or in large, shallow ponds that have been excavated out of the ground and lined with plastic.

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Using fresh water, a mixture of liquid and proppant is blended that consists of some 90 percent water, less than 10 percent sand, and 0.5–2 percent chemical additives; these latter include gelling agents, borehole-cleaning acids, corrosion-preventing stabilizers, and petroleum-based friction reducers—all combined to produce a “slickwater” judged to be right for the particular job. The precise formulas for these fracturing fluids are well-guarded company secrets, though the types of chemical compounds employed are generally known.

In a series of closely monitored operations, the fluid is pumped down the borehole and through the perforations in the production casing under great pressure, powerful enough to enlarge and prop open existing tiny fissures in the shale. Once fracturing is complete, production tubing is inserted into the well. Gas freed from the fractured rock enters the tubing and flows to the surface, where the fracking equipment is replaced by a network of valves at the wellhead called the “Christmas tree.” Fracking fluid returns along with the gas and in some cases brines from the shale formation. These liquids are diverted to the settling ponds or tanks for further treatment and disposal. A finished production site eventually may be denuded of all previous machinery and structures, leaving little more than the Christmas tree (or trees), connections to a gas pipeline, tanks for storing condensed liquids, and support and maintenance equipment. Unused settling ponds are filled in.

Environmental concerns

Regulation

Environmental concerns such as those outlined above have called increasing attention to the practice of hydraulic fracturing, especially as its use has grown and moved beyond areas where oil and gas exploration has been practiced for generations. Nowhere is this more the case than in the Marcellus Shale, a vast and rich shale gas deposit lying mainly under Pennsylvania but also extending northeast into New York and southwest into Ohio and West Virginia—a region blanketed by the scenic Allegheny Mountains and home to consumer and environmental movements that were well established long before fracking entered the area in the early 2000s. Using records kept by the Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection, conservation organizations found that gas drillers in that state had been cited for violations of environmental regulations more than 1,600 times from January 2008 to August 2010. In July 2011 the New York Department of Environmental Conservation (DEC), citing concerns about freshwater use and wastewater disposal, issued a report recommending that horizontal drilling and high-volume hydraulic fracturing be banned anywhere within the watersheds supplying drinking water to New York City and Syracuse. The DEC also recommended that drilling not be allowed within a specified distance of any primary freshwater aquifer and that the purchase and drawing of water for drilling and fracturing be strictly regulated. In 2014 New York Gov. Andrew Cuomo announced a statewide ban on fracking, making New York the first state with proven reserves to ban the practice. North of New York, in Canada the Quebec Ministry of the Environment called for a halt to all fracking operations within the Utica Shale along the St. Lawrence River, pending further investigation of risks to the environment and the population.

In France the test drilling of shale formations in the picturesque southeast part of the country and in the densely populated north around Paris provoked such a strong reaction by environmentalist groups that the government was prompted to put the issue to a vote in parliament. In June 2011 France became the first country in the world to ban the exploration and extraction of gas and oil by hydraulic fracturing.

Meanwhile, in the United States, where the exploitation of shale gas is central to federal energy policy, the debate over fracking has threatened to become polarized between irreconcilable pro-industry and environmental camps, each armed with its own research to support its own arguments. In order to work toward a consensus based on objective, verifiable data, in 2010 Congress directed the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to study “any potential impacts of hydraulic fracturing on drinking water and groundwater.” The following year the EPA decided to conduct case studies of seven specific well sites around the country, from Texas to Pennsylvania to North Dakota. The final report, issued in 2016, found that the various activities in the fracking water cycle can impact drinking water resources under some circumstances. It also acknowledged that the lack of toxicity data on the chemicals added to fracking water was a significant limitation to the assessment of the severity of the impact on drinking water.