Powerpuff Girls, American animated television series starring a trio of preschool-age girls who possess superpowers. The Powerpuff Girls, defenders of the fictional metropolis Townville, consist of the red-haired, level-headed leader, Blossom; the sweet, blonde, and often underestimated Bubbles;

Noam Chomsky: Politics of Noam Chomsky: As he wrote in Powers and Prospects (1996),

Your wish is their command.A power of attorney (POA) doesn’t refer to a lawyer. Rather, a POA is a legal document that you (the principal) can use to delegate your wishes to a trusted agent who can act on your behalf in legal, financial, or health care matters. This delegation of power is typically

industrial design: American hegemony and challenges from abroad: …important educational films, most notably Powers of Ten (1977), and they designed a number of significant public exhibitions, such as “Mathematica” (1961), that were shown throughout the nation and within World’s Fair pavilions. Other designers who made important contributions to American industry in the postwar era include Eliot Noyes, an…

Abigail Fillmore was the American first lady (1850–53), the wife of Millard Fillmore, 13th president of the United States. Powers was the last of the first ladies born in the 1700s. She was the daughter of Lemuel Powers, a Baptist minister, and Abigail Newland Powers. Her parents placed great

delegation of powers, in U.S. constitutional law, the transfer of a specific authority by one of the three branches of government (executive, legislative, and judicial) to another branch or to an independent agency. The U.S. Congress, for example, has created government agencies to which it has

separation of powers, division of the legislative, executive, and judicial functions of government among separate and independent bodies. Such a separation, it has been argued, limits the possibility of arbitrary excesses by government, since the sanction of all three branches is required for the

Francis Gary Powers was a pilot who was captured on May 1, 1960, while on a reconnaissance flight deep inside the Soviet Union. The capture, known as the U-2 incident, resulted in the cancellation by the Soviet Union of a conference with the United States, Great Britain, and France. Powers was

Harriet Powers was a seamstress whose 19th-century quilts gained renewed interest in the 1970s for their spirited narratives and vibrant colors. Powers wrote about a number of quilts she had made, but only two survive: the Bible Quilt, which is housed in the Smithsonian National Museum of American

Hiram Powers was an American sculptor who worked in the Neoclassical style during the mid-1800s. He is best remembered for his Greek Slave (1843), a white marble statue of a nude girl in chains. Powers first studied with Frederick Eckstein about 1828. About 1829 he worked as a general assistant and

separation of powers, division of the legislative, executive, and judicial functions of government among separate and independent bodies. Such a separation, it has been argued, limits the possibility of arbitrary excesses by government, since the sanction of all three branches is required for the

Piotr Skarga was a militant Jesuit preacher and writer, the first Polish representative of the Counter-Reformation. After a difficult childhood during which both his parents died, he studied at Jagiellonian University, then became rector of a parish school in Warsaw. After some travel, he became a

Powhatan, confederacy of at least 30 Algonquian-speaking North American Indian tribes that once occupied most of what is now tidewater Virginia, the eastern shore of the Chesapeake Bay, and possibly southern Maryland. The confederacy had been formed by and named for a powerful chief, Powhatan,

Powhatan was a North American Indian leader, father of Pocahontas. He presided over the Powhatan empire at the time the English established the Jamestown Colony (1607). Powhatan had inherited rulership of an empire of six tribes from his father. After succeeding his father, Powhatan brought about

Powhatan War, (1622–44), relentless struggle between the Powhatan Indian confederacy and early English settlers in the tidewater section of Virginia and southern Maryland. The conflict resulted in the destruction of the Indian power. English colonists who had settled in Jamestown (1607) were at

Gumal Pass: …by nomadic Afghan traders called Powindahs, whose entry into Pakistan is now restricted. By treaty agreement with the Maḥsūd Wazīrī inhabitants, the British succeeded in opening the pass in 1889.

Montgomeryshire: …Norman castles was built, including Powis Castle near Welshpool and one at the town of Montgomery. The area was under the rule of the marcher lordships (local rulers in Wales who were partly independent of the English crown) until 1536, when King Henry VIII created the county of Montgomeryshire and…

Vesta Tilley was an English singing comedienne who was the outstanding male impersonator in music-hall history. The daughter of a music-hall performer, she appeared on the stage at three and first played in male attire two years later. Before she was 14, she was playing in two different London

Julian Ursyn Niemcewicz: In 1790 he wrote Powrót posła (“The Deputy’s Return”), a political comedy very popular in its day. After participating in the unsuccessful insurrection against Russia of 1794, when he served as an aide-de-camp to Tadeusz Kościuszko, he was captured at Maciejowice and imprisoned in St. Petersburg for two years.…

Maurycy Mochnacki: His Powstanie narodu polskiego w r. 1830 i 1831 (1834; “The Insurrection of the Polish Nation in the Years 1830 and 1831”) is considered the best firsthand account and study of that period. Of his literary essays, “O literaturze polskiej wieku XIX” (1830; “On Polish Literature…

powwow, a celebration of American Indian culture in which people from diverse indigenous nations gather for the purpose of dancing, singing, and honouring the traditions of their ancestors. The term powwow, which derives from a curing ritual, originated in one of the Algonquian nations of the

Powys, county of east-central Wales, bordering England. Powys is by far the largest county in Wales. It encompasses a rugged landscape of valleys and mountains, including most of Brecon Beacons National Park, and the entire historic counties of Montgomeryshire and Radnorshire, most of

Welshpool: Powys Castle, dating back to the 12th century and modernized in the 19th century, is maintained by the National Trust. Pop. (2001) 6,269; (2011) 6,664.

John Cowper Powys was a Welsh novelist, essayist, and poet, known chiefly for his long panoramic novels, including Wolf Solent (1929), A Glastonbury Romance (1932), and Owen Glendower (1940). He was the brother of the authors T.F. Powys and Llewelyn Powys. Educated at Sherborne School and the

Llewelyn Powys was a British author known for his books of essays, travel books, and memoirs. Powys was the eighth of 11 children of a country clergyman. Unlike his brothers T.F. Powys and John Cowper Powys, both also authors, Llewelyn preferred writing nonfiction, and he published only one novel,

T.F. Powys was an English novelist and short-story writer whose works dealt mainly with the hardships and brutalities of rural life. The brother of the authors John Cowper and Llewelyn Powys, he did not go to a university but rather turned to farming for several years. Thereafter he lived frugally

T.F. Powys was an English novelist and short-story writer whose works dealt mainly with the hardships and brutalities of rural life. The brother of the authors John Cowper and Llewelyn Powys, he did not go to a university but rather turned to farming for several years. Thereafter he lived frugally

pox disease, any of a complex of viral diseases in humans and other animals, marked chiefly by eruptions of the skin and mucous membranes. Pox diseases occur worldwide and are caused by viruses in multiple different genera; examples include Avipoxvirus, Leporipoxvirus, Orthopoxvirus, and

poxvirus, (family Poxviridae), any of a group of viruses constituting the family Poxviridae responsible for a wide range of pox diseases in humans and other animals. The family contains various subfamilies and genera. In terms of human disease, the most important genus is Orthopoxvirus, which

poxvirus, (family Poxviridae), any of a group of viruses constituting the family Poxviridae responsible for a wide range of pox diseases in humans and other animals. The family contains various subfamilies and genera. In terms of human disease, the most important genus is Orthopoxvirus, which

man-made fibre: Drawing techniques: …yield what is known as partially oriented yarns (POY)—i.e., filaments that are partially drawn and partially crystallized and that can be drawn at a later time during textile operations. Many fibres, such as PET, require that a hot-drawing step follow the spinning process fairly soon, or they will become brittle.…

Lake Poyang, largest freshwater lake in China, located in northern Jiangxi province, in the southeastern part of the country. It lies in a structural depression south of the Yangtze River (Chang Jiang) and is fed by various rivers from Jiangxi, the most important being the Gan River, which drains

Lake Poyang, largest freshwater lake in China, located in northern Jiangxi province, in the southeastern part of the country. It lies in a structural depression south of the Yangtze River (Chang Jiang) and is fed by various rivers from Jiangxi, the most important being the Gan River, which drains

Amur River: History: …basin was by the adventurers Vasily Poyarkov, who visited much of the basin and estuary between 1644 and 1646, and Yerofey P. Khabarov (1649–51), for whom Khabarovsk is named. In 1849–55 an expedition led by the Russian naval officer Gennady I. Nevelskoy proved that Sakhalin is an island and that,…

Aleksandr Ivanovich Kuprin: …fame came with Poyedinok (1905; The Duel), a realistically sordid picture of the emptiness of life in a remote military garrison. Its appearance during the Russo-Japanese War coincided with and confirmed a national wave of antimilitary sentiment. Kuprin wrote prolifically; his subjects might be best described by the title of…

Guillaume Poyet was the chancellor of France (from 1538) who sought to reform legal procedures in France during the reign of Francis I. After practicing successfully as a barrister at Angers and Paris, he was instructed by Louise of Savoy, mother of King Francis I, to uphold her rights against the

Ireland: The Kildare ascendancy: …to be known as “Poynings’s Law,” which subjected the meetings and legislative drafts of the Irish Parliament to the control of the English king and council. But Poynings’s administrative expenses were too great, and Henry VII decided in 1496 to restore Kildare.

Sir Edward Poynings was the lord deputy of Ireland from September 1494 to December 1495, mainly remembered for the laws—“Poynings’ Laws”—that subjected the Irish Parliament to the control of the English king and council. A grandson of William Paston, he was a rebel (1483) against Richard III and

Poynting vector, a quantity describing the magnitude and direction of the flow of energy in electromagnetic waves. It is named after English physicist John Henry Poynting, who introduced it in 1884. The Poynting vector S is defined as to be equal to the cross product (1/μ)E × B, where μ is the

John Henry Poynting was a British physicist who introduced a theorem that assigns a value to the rate of flow of electromagnetic energy known as the Poynting vector. He was a professor of physics at Mason Science College (later the University of Birmingham) from 1880 until his death. In papers

meteor and meteoroid: Directing meteoroids to Earth: …belt through a process called Poynting-Robertson drag. The time it takes a particle to traverse the distance from the asteroid belt to Earth depends inversely on its radius and where in the asteroid belt it started out. For 10–50-μm dust particles, traverse time is calculated to be about 100,000 years.…

meteor and meteoroid: Directing meteoroids to Earth: …belt through a process called Poynting-Robertson drag. The time it takes a particle to traverse the distance from the asteroid belt to Earth depends inversely on its radius and where in the asteroid belt it started out. For 10–50-μm dust particles, traverse time is calculated to be about 100,000 years.…

Poza Rica, city, north-central Veracruz estado (state), east-central Mexico. Northeast of Mexico City, Poza Rica lies on the Cazones River approximately 200 feet (60 metres) above sea level. The hot, humid climate is inhospitable, but Poza Rica is situated in the midst of one of Mexico’s most

Poza Rica, city, north-central Veracruz estado (state), east-central Mexico. Northeast of Mexico City, Poza Rica lies on the Cazones River approximately 200 feet (60 metres) above sea level. The hot, humid climate is inhospitable, but Poza Rica is situated in the midst of one of Mexico’s most

Treaty of Passarowitz, (July 21, 1718), pact signed at the conclusion of the Austro-Turkish (1716–18) and Venetian-Turkish (1716–18) wars at Passarowitz (now Požerevac, Serb.). By its terms the Ottoman Empire lost substantial territories in the Balkans to Austria, thus marking the end of Ottoman

Tadeusz Borowski: …two collections of short stories, Pożegnanie z Marią (1948; “Farewell to Maria”) and Kamienny świat (1948; “The World of Stone”), that explored the depths of human degradation in the Nazi concentration camps. (Both collections appear in the English translation This Way for the Gas, Ladies and Gentlemen, and Other Stories…

Poznań, city, capital of Wielkopolskie województwo (province), west-central Poland, located on the Warta River near its confluence with the Cybina. Beginning as a small stronghold in the 9th century, Poznań became the capital of Poland (with Gniezno) and the residence of Poland’s first two

Poznań Riots, (June 1956), uprising of Polish industrial workers that caused a crisis among the Polish communist leadership as well as in the Soviet bloc and resulted in the establishment of a new Polish regime headed by Władysław Gomułka. After the death of the Soviet leader Joseph Stalin (March

Pozo Colorado, town, west-central Paraguay, just south of an economically important forest zone. The town is the centre of the region’s livestock activity and processes a major portion of the country’s beef production. Pozo Colorado is located at the intersection of roads connecting it with the

Latin jazz: …Cuban percussionist, dancer, and composer Chano Pozo. Gillespie and Pozo’s musical synthesis became known as Afro-Cuban jazz or, for a short period, “Cubop.” One of their collaborative efforts produced the 1947 hit “Manteca,” which quickly became a standard of the jazz repertoire.

Juan Carlos Onetti: …the novella El pozo (1939; The Pit), treats the aimless life of a man lost within a city where he is unable to communicate with others. The book’s complex fusion of reality with fantasy and inner experience makes it one of the first distinctively modern Spanish American novels. In the…

Hungary: Political reforms: …uprising” (not a “counterrevolution”) was Imre Pozsgay, who, though a member of the Politburo, was already moving away from strict Marxist ideology. He joined forces with a most unlikely partner, Archduke Otto von Habsburg, the oldest son of the last king of Hungary, to sponsor the Pan-European Picnic of August…

Bratislava, city, capital of Slovakia. It lies in the extreme southwestern part of the country, along the Danube where that river has cut a gorge in the Little Carpathian Mountains near the meeting point of the frontiers of Slovakia, Austria, and Hungary. Vienna is 35 miles (56 km) west.

Potsdam, city, capital of Brandenburg Land (state), eastern Germany. Lying on the southwest border of Berlin, it is sited where the Nuthe River flows into the Havel River, the confluence becoming a series of lakes. First mentioned in 993 as a Slavic settlement known as Poztupimi, it received its

Charles-André, Comte Pozzo di Borgo was a Corsican nobleman who entered the Russian diplomatic service and promoted French interests after the Napoleonic Wars in the courts of the Russian emperors Alexander I (reigned 1801–25) and Nicholas I (reigned 1825–55). A native of Corsica, Pozzo favoured

Charles-André, Comte Pozzo di Borgo was a Corsican nobleman who entered the Russian diplomatic service and promoted French interests after the Napoleonic Wars in the courts of the Russian emperors Alexander I (reigned 1801–25) and Nicholas I (reigned 1825–55). A native of Corsica, Pozzo favoured

Andrea Mantegna: Years as court painter in Mantua: …such as Giovanni Lanfranco and Andrea Pozzo, utilized a basically identical concept of total illusion dependent upon the location of a hypothetical viewer standing at a single point in the room.

Nicolas Poussin: Beginnings: …the scholar, antiquarian, and collector Cassiano dal Pozzo, who was destined to become his chief Italian patron and one of his closest friends. One year later, Pozzo assisted him in securing the commission for The Martyrdom of St. Erasmus, an altarpiece for St. Peter’s. Poussin’s altarpiece did not meet with…

pozzolana, hydraulic cement perfected by the Romans and still used in some countries, traditionally made by grinding a material of volcanic origin (the pozzolan) with powdered hydrated lime. Roman engineers used two parts by weight of pozzolan mixed with one part of lime to give strength to mortar

pozzolana, hydraulic cement perfected by the Romans and still used in some countries, traditionally made by grinding a material of volcanic origin (the pozzolan) with powdered hydrated lime. Roman engineers used two parts by weight of pozzolan mixed with one part of lime to give strength to mortar

concrete: …continued to be the primary pozzolanic, or cement-forming, agent until the early 1800s. In 1824 an English inventor, Joseph Aspdin, burned and ground together a mixture of limestone and clay. This mixture, called portland cement, has remained the dominant cementing agent used in concrete production.

pozzolana, hydraulic cement perfected by the Romans and still used in some countries, traditionally made by grinding a material of volcanic origin (the pozzolan) with powdered hydrated lime. Roman engineers used two parts by weight of pozzolan mixed with one part of lime to give strength to mortar

Pozzuoli, town and episcopal see, Campania regione, southern Italy. It occupies a promontory that projects into the Gulf of Pozzuoli (an inlet of the Bay of Naples), just west of Naples. The town was founded about 529 bce by Greek emigrants who called it Dicaearchia (City of Justice). Captured by

Mizraḥi: Younger Orthodox elements founded ha-Poʿel ha-Mizraḥi (the Mizraḥi Worker Party) in 1922. After the creation of Israel in 1948, the Mizraḥi became an influential partner with the Mapai party in coalition governments with the Israel Labour Party, then the country’s largest political party, which could not obtain an absolute…

Popular Party, Spanish conservative political party. The Popular Party (PP) traces its origins to the Popular Alliance, a union of seven conservative political parties formed in the 1970s by Manuel Fraga Iribarne, a prominent cabinet member under Spain’s longtime dictator Francisco Franco. In March

polypropylene, a synthetic resin built up by the polymerization of propylene. One of the important family of polyolefin resins, polypropylene is molded or extruded into many plastic products in which toughness, flexibility, light weight, and heat resistance are required. It is also spun into fibres

Ahmed Messali Hadj: …the Parti Populaire Algérien (PPA; Algerian Popular Party), which was suppressed only to reemerge in 1946 as the Mouvement pour le Triomphe des Libertés Démocratiques (MTLD; Movement for the Triumph of Democratic Liberties). His influence, however, declined dramatically in the postwar period. In 1954 he formed the Mouvement National Algérian…

Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (PPACA), in the United States, health care reform legislation signed into law by U.S. Pres. Barack Obama in March 2010, which included provisions that required most individuals to secure health insurance or pay fines, made coverage easier and less costly

antidiabetic drug: Oral antidiabetic drugs: …their effects by activating so-called PPARγ (peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma) receptors, which are found primarily in adipose tissue; when activated, PPARγ prompts the transcription (synthesis of RNA from DNA) of genes that regulate glucose and lipid metabolism. Because hepatotoxicity is a major

public administration: Responses to incrementalism: …less successful, technique was the Planning, Programming, and Budgeting System (PPBS), introduced into the U.S. Department of Defense in 1961 and extended to the federal budget in 1965. According to PPBS, the objectives of government programs were to be identified, and then alternative means of achieving these objectives were to…

small arm: The submachine gun: The PPD was fed by a drum-shaped magazine containing 71 7.62-mm cartridges, and it fired at a rate of 900 rounds per minute—far too fast for accuracy. In the United States, John T. Thompson’s submachine gun, chambered for the .45-inch Colt pistol cartridge, was adopted by…

Puerto Rico: Government: …two leading parties are the Popular Democratic Party, which supports the continuation of commonwealth status, and the New Progressive Party, which favours U.S. statehood. Together these two parties have commanded virtually all the vote in elections since the late 20th century. The Puerto Rican Independence Party, which won one-fifth of…

Planned Parenthood, American organization that, since its founding in 1942, has worked as an advocate for education and personal liberties in the areas of birth control, family planning, and reproductive health care. Clinics operated by Planned Parenthood provide a range of reproductive health care

polyether: Polypropylene glycols are liquids, mostly insoluble in water, used to suppress foaming in industrial processes and for making polyurethane resins, hydraulic fluids, and various other materials.

PPG Industries, Inc., a leading American and international producer of coatings, flat glass, chemicals, and chemical products. Its headquarters are in Pittsburgh, Pa. The company was incorporated in 1883 as the Pittsburgh Plate Glass Company at a time when European producers had a virtual monopoly

Pittsburgh: The contemporary city: …ice hockey team, plays at PPG Paints Arena. Popular summertime attractions include riverboat excursions on Pittsburgh’s waterways and Kennywood, an amusement park southeast of the city in West Mifflin.

radar: Displays: …used radar display is the plan position indicator (PPI), which provides a maplike presentation in polar coordinates of range and angle. The display is “dark” except when echo signals are present.

Italian Popular Party, former centrist Italian political party whose several factions were united by their Roman Catholicism and anticommunism. They advocated programs ranging from social reform to the defense of free enterprise. The DC usually dominated Italian politics from World War II until the

Pedro Pablo Kuczynski is a Peruvian economist and centrist politician who served as president of Peru (2016–18) but was forced to resign because of his alleged involvement in an influence-peddling scandal. Kuczynski was the son of European immigrants who fled Nazi Germany in the 1930s and settled

life: Sizes of organisms: …smallest free-living cells include the pleuropneumonia-like organisms (PPLOs). Whereas an amoeba has a mass of 5 × 10−7 gram (2 × 10−8 ounce), a PPLO, which cannot be seen without a high-powered electron microscope, weighs 5 × 10−16 gram (2 × 10−15 ounce) and is only about 100 nanometres across.…

multiple sclerosis: Prevalence and types of multiple sclerosis: (RRMS), secondary-progressive (SPMS), primary-progressive (PPMS), and progressive-relapsing (PRMS). About 80–85 percent of patients are diagnosed initially with RRMS. In this form of the disease, onset is usually gradual, and there are alternating intervals of symptom exacerbation and complete symptom remission. In many patients with RRMS, symptoms may worsen…

gravity: Field theories of gravitation: …parameters; such formulations are called parameterized post-Newtonian (PPN) theories. There is now considerable experimental and observational evidence for limits to the parameters. So far, no deviation from general relativity has been demonstrated convincingly.

health insurance: …to the HMO is the preferred provider organization (PPO), also known as a participating provider option, which offers features of traditional fee-for-service insurance plans, such as the ability of patients to choose their own health care providers, but also follows the lower-cost strategies of HMOs. For example, those enrolled in…

polyether: Polyphenylene oxide resins, such as Noryl, possess great resistance to water and to high temperatures (175°–300° C; 350°–575° F). Penton, a chlorine-containing polyether unaffected by many chemicals, is fabricated into sheets used for lining storage tanks and the like.

Spelling out the alphabet soup of health-care plans.Trying to get health insurance can feel daunting—especially when all the terms surrounding insurance are an alphabet soup. As you research health insurance options, make sure you understand the jargon and acronyms. Here’s your cheat sheet for

Cheddi Jagan: …first modern political party, the People’s Progressive Party (PPP), with himself as its leader. In elections held under the new British-granted constitution of 1953, the PPP won a majority of the seats in the House of Assembly and Jagan became the country’s prime minister. His subsequent program of radical socioeconomic…

The Gambia: Independence, confederation of Senegambia, and economic troubles: Yet Jawara and the PPP easily won reelection in 1987 and 1992, although opposition parties gained some support in each election.

Nawaz Sharif: Second term as prime minister: …of Zardari and the ruling Pakistan People’s Party (PPP), accusing the incumbents of corruption and economic ineptitude.

public-private partnership (PPP), partnership between an agency of the government and the private sector in the delivery of goods or services to the public. Areas of public policy in which public-private partnerships (PPPs) have been implemented include a wide range of social services, public

purchasing power parity (PPP), a measure of the relative value of currencies that compares the prices of purchasing a fixed basket of goods and services in different countries. PPPs can be useful for estimating a more consistent and accurate comparison between different countries’ gross domestic

Thailand: Thaksin Shinawatra: …backing the ousted prime minister—the People Power Party (PPP)—clearly won the most seats in parliament, which effectively amounted to a popular rejection of the coup. The head of the PPP, Samak Sundaravej, became prime minister.

United Development Party, moderate Islamist political party in Indonesia. The PPP was formed in 1973 through the merger of four Islamic groups—the Council of Scholars (Nahdlatul Ulama), the Indonesian Islamic Party (Partai Muslimin Indonesia), the United Islamic Party of Indonesia (Partai Syarikat

Benazir Bhutto: Corruption charges and exile: …legally distinct branch called the Pakistan People’s Party Parliamentarians (PPPP). Legally separate and free from the restrictions brought upon the PPP by Bhutto’s leadership, the PPPP participated in the 2002 elections, in which it proceeded to earn a strong vote. However, Bhutto’s terms for cooperation with the military government—that all…

Poland: Political process: …Poland was governed by the Polish United Workers’ Party (PUWP; Polska Zjednoczona Partia Robotnicza), the country’s communist party, which was modeled on the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. The postwar government was run as a dual system in which state organs were controlled by parallel organs of the PUWP.…

François Pinault: …formed Pinault-Printemps-Redoute in 1994 (renamed PPR in 2005). Working through his holding company, Artémis SA (founded in 1992), he added a wide range of firms. Pinault’s purchase of a nearly 30 percent stake in British auction house Christie’s in 1998 signaled his shift toward expensive brands—and affirmed his interest in…

organosulfur compound: Sulfides: Poly(phenylene sulfide) (PPS), a polymeric material derived from diphenyl sulfide, which has been known for more than 100 years, is used in electrical, electronic, and mechanical applications. Polythiophene conductors are of great interest for use in molecular electronic devices. Research has led to the preparation of macrocyclic…

Anṭūn Saʿādah: 16, 1932, Saʿādah founded the Syrian Social Nationalist Party, a secret society that grew from a few students to about 1,000 members by 1935. During the 1930s the party expanded into Syria, Transjordan, and Palestine. Saʿādah had created perhaps the first indigenous Arab youth organization. It stressed discipline, struggle, and…

Józef Piłsudski: Early life and political activities: He joined the newly founded Polish Socialist Party (PPS), of which he soon became a leader. He started a clandestine newspaper, Robotnik (“The Worker”), in Wilno. In July 1899 he married, in a Protestant church, the beautiful Maria Juszkiewicz, the divorced wife of a Polish civil engineer, and moved to…

Enver Hoxha: …communists helped Hoxha found the Albanian Communist Party (afterward called the Party of Labour). Hoxha became first secretary of the party’s Central Committee and political commissar of the communist-dominated Army of National Liberation. He was prime minister of Albania from its liberation in 1944 until 1954, simultaneously holding the ministry…

Chad: Independence of Chad: …become the leader of the Chad Progressive Party (PPT). An autonomous republic within the French Community was proclaimed in November 1958, and complete independence in the restructured community was attained on Aug. 11, 1960. The country’s stability was endangered by tensions between the Black and often Christian populations of the…