tincalconite, a borate mineral, hydrated sodium tetraborate (Na2B4O5(OH)4·3H2O), that is found in nature only as a dull, white, fine-grained powder; colourless crystals of the mineral have been made artificially. Tincalconite is common in the borax deposits of southern California, where it often

art criticism: Avant-garde art comes to America: …as the critical reporting of Edward Alden Jewell and John Canaday in the Times indicated—the former was “befuddled” by Abstract Expressionism, the latter skeptical of it. Abstract artists themselves became critics in an attempt to clarify and justify their work. A decisive moment occurred in 1943, when Adolph Gottlieb and…

Josephine Marshall Jewell Dodge was an American pioneer in the day nursery movement. Josephine Jewell was of a prominent family. She left Vassar College after three years in 1873 to accompany her father, who had just been appointed U.S. minister to Russia, to St. Petersburg. Returning to the United

Richard Jewell was an American security guard and former suspect in the Atlanta Olympic Games bombing of 1996. Jewell, who had been hired to work security at Centennial Olympic Park on July 27, spotted a suspicious-looking green knapsack and reported it to police. The bag held a pipe bomb and would

jewelry, objects of personal adornment prized for the craftsmanship going into their creation and generally for the value of their components as well. Throughout the centuries and from culture to culture, the materials considered rare and beautiful have ranged from shells, bones, pebbles, tusks,

jewelry, objects of personal adornment prized for the craftsmanship going into their creation and generally for the value of their components as well. Throughout the centuries and from culture to culture, the materials considered rare and beautiful have ranged from shells, bones, pebbles, tusks,

Samuel R. Delany: His first novel, The Jewels of Aptor, was published in 1962. Babel-17 (1966), the story of an artist-outsider, explores the nature of language and its ability to give structure to experience. Delany won the science-fiction Nebula Award for this book, which established his reputation, and for The Einstein…

Ermanno Wolf-Ferrari: …I gioielli della Madonna (1911; The Jewels of the Madonna), he was influenced by the realistic, or verismo, style of Pietro Mascagni. He also composed chamber, instrumental, and orchestral works and a violin concerto.

James Ene Henshaw: One of his first plays, The Jewels of the Shrine, was published in the collection This Is Our Chance: Plays from West Africa (1957). His second collection, Children of the Goddess, and Other Plays (1964), treated such themes as the inefficiency of a local village court because of the drunkenness…

angiosperm: Mechanisms of dispersal: …air, as, for example, the touch-me-not (Impatiens; Balsaminaceae) and the witch hazel (Hamamelis; Hamamelidaceae). The fruits or seeds of many aquatic and shore plants are adapted to float on water as a means of dispersal; for this reason, coconuts (Cocos nucifera; Arecaceae) are readily transported across oceans to neighbouring islands.…

Franz Grillparzer: Die Jüdin von Toledo (The Jewess of Toledo), based on a Spanish theme, portrays the tragic infatuation of a king for a young Jewish woman. He is only brought back to a sense of his responsibilities after she has been killed at the queen’s command. Ein Bruderzwist in Habsburg…

Frank Baldwin Jewett was a U.S. electrical engineer and the first president of the Bell Telephone Laboratories, Inc., who directed research in telephony, telegraphy, and radio and television communications. After receiving the B.A. in 1898 from Throop Polytechnical Institute (now the California

Sarah Orne Jewett was an American writer of regional fiction that centers on life in Maine. Jewett was often taken by her physician father on visits to the fishermen and farmers of her native Maine, and she developed a deep and abiding love of their way of life and of the sights and sounds of her

Sarah Orne Jewett was an American writer of regional fiction that centers on life in Maine. Jewett was often taken by her physician father on visits to the fishermen and farmers of her native Maine, and she developed a deep and abiding love of their way of life and of the sights and sounds of her

goliath grouper, (Epinephelus itajara), large sea bass (family Serranidae) found on the Atlantic and Pacific coasts of tropical America and in the eastern Atlantic Ocean. The species sometimes attains a length of 2.5 metres (8.2 feet) and a weight of about 455 kg (1,000 pounds). The adult is dull

Jewish Agency, international body representing the World Zionist Organization, created in 1929 by Chaim Weizmann, with headquarters in Jerusalem. Its purpose is to assist and encourage Jews worldwide to help develop and settle Israel. Zionists needed financial backing for their project of creating

Maurice, baron de Hirsch: …fund continued to support the Jewish Agricultural Society, which lent money to farmers and settled displaced persons on farms in various countries. Hirsch’s charity was not confined to Jews, and it has been estimated that he spent more than $100,000,000 on his philanthropies.

Jewish Autonomous Region, autonomous oblast (region), far eastern Russia, in the basin of the middle Amur River. Most of the oblast consists of level plain, with extensive swamps, patches of swampy forest, and grassland on fertile soils, now largely plowed up. In the north and northwest are the

Rembrandt: Fourth Amsterdam period (1658–69) of Rembrandt: …Rebecca (1667), better known as The Jewish Bride (portrait historié is a phrase used to indicate a portrait in which the sitter is—or in this case the sitters are—rendered in a historic role with historicizing costumes). Shortly before his death Rembrandt was preparing a number of copperplates for an etched…

Bund, Jewish socialist political movement founded in Vilnius in 1897 by a small group of workers and intellectuals from the Jewish Pale of tsarist Russia. The Bund called for the abolition of discrimination against Jews and the reconstitution of Russia along federal lines. At the time of the

Jewish religious year, the cycle of Sabbaths and holidays that are commonly observed by the Jewish religious community—and officially in Israel by the Jewish secular community as well. The Sabbath and festivals are bound to the Jewish calendar, reoccur at fixed intervals, and are celebrated at home

Hebrew Bible, collection of writings that was first compiled and preserved as the sacred books of the Jewish people. It also constitutes a large portion of the Christian Bible, known as the Old Testament. Except for a few passages in Aramaic, appearing mainly in the apocalyptic Book of Daniel,

Jacob van Ruisdael: …more evident in his famous Jewish Cemetery (c. 1655; Gemäldegalerie Alte Meister, Dresden), which is one of his most masterly compositions. All motifs of secondary importance serve as accessories to the main motif, three ruined tombs. Some scholars have suggested that the painting symbolizes the transience of temporal things.

Mordecai Menahem Kaplan: In 1916 he organized the Jewish Centre in New York, a secular community organization with a synagogue as its nucleus, the first of its kind in the United States, and was its rabbi until 1922. In that year he established the Society for the Advancement of Judaism, which later became…

Maurice, baron de Hirsch: …established and richly endowed the Jewish Colonization Association, with headquarters in England. This fund, which became one of the largest charitable trusts in the world, was used to establish agricultural colonies in hospitable countries, for Hirsch believed that Jews would best become self-supporting by farming.

Young Men’s and Young Women’s Hebrew Association (YM–YWHA), Jewish community organization in various countries that provides a wide range of cultural, educational, recreational, and social activities for all age groups in Jewish communities. The goals of the YM–YWHA are to prepare the young for

Leopold Zunz: …Moses Moser, Zunz founded the Verein für Kultur und Wissenschaft der Juden (“Society for Jewish Culture and Science”). He and his colleagues hoped that an analysis and exposition of the breadth and depth of Jewish history, literature, and culture would lead to general acceptance of the Jews. From 1822 to…

Forward, newspaper based in New York City that publishes both Yiddish and English versions. The Forward was founded in 1897 by the Jewish Socialist Press Federation as a civic aid and a cohesive device for Jewish immigrants from Europe. It quickly became the leading Yiddish-language newspaper in

Sir Isaac Lyon Goldsmid, 1st Baronet: …possible the passage of the Jewish Disabilities Bill of 1859, granting basic civil and political rights to Jews.

Simon Wiesenthal: Nazi hunter: …following year he opened the Jewish Documentation Centre in Vienna. In the following years, Israel’s secret intelligence agency, the Mossad, supported Wiesenthal’s work, covering part of his expenses. Searching for thousands of SS and Gestapo members, Wiesenthal worked mostly by himself, in a tiny office, using historical

Kaufmann Kohler: …department editor of the monumental Jewish Encyclopedia, to which he contributed some 300 articles, including the principal ones on theological subjects. In 1903 he became president of the Hebrew Union College (now Hebrew Union College–Jewish Institute of Religion) in Cincinnati, Ohio, a position he retained until 1921. It was during…

Haskala, a late 18th- and 19th-century intellectual movement among the Jews of central and eastern Europe that attempted to acquaint Jews with the European and Hebrew languages and with secular education and culture as supplements to traditional Talmudic studies. Though the Haskala owed much of its

Warsaw Ghetto Uprising: A newly formed group, the Jewish Fighting Organization (Żydowska Organizacja Bojowa; ŻOB), slowly took effective control of the ghetto.

Charles Cutler Torrey: …an edition (1922), and by The Jewish Foundation of Islam (1933). He offered a fresh critical appraisal and rearrangement of the books of Ezra and Nehemiah in The Composition and Historical Value of Ezra-Nehemiah (1896), which was followed up by his Ezra Studies (1910) and by The Chronicler’s History of…

fundamentalism: Jewish fundamentalism in Israel: Three main trends in Israeli Judaism have been characterized as fundamentalist: militant religious Zionism, the ultra-Orthodoxy of the Ashkenazim (Jews of eastern European origin), and the ultra-Orthodoxy of the Sephardim

Venetian Ghetto, seven-acre section of the Cannaregio district in Venice, Italy, to which Jews were confined for more than 250 years beginning in 1516. The Venetian Ghetto was the first to be legally established in the world, and the word ghetto, which predated the residential segregation, was

Joods Historisch Museum (JHM), museum in Amsterdam that displays artifacts, artwork, and other items associated with Jewish history, religion, and culture. The objects on view at the Joods Historisch Museum demonstrate the Jewish spiritual, cultural, and historical experience in the Netherlands and

Naftali Bennett: Political rise: …to lead the religious right-wing Jewish Home party. His relatively young age and fresh ideas helped steer the minor party to a historic victory: winning 12 seats, it became the fourth largest party in the Knesset, just behind the Labour Party, with 15 seats. His campaign had touted his so-called…

Stephen Samuel Wise: In 1922 Wise founded the Jewish Institute of Religion in New York City, a seminary that was especially designed to train liberal rabbis for the New York area; this school merged with Hebrew Union College in 1950.

Judaism: Sources and scope of the Torah: …this written Torah, or “Law,” there were also unwritten laws or customs and interpretations of them, carried down in an oral tradition over many generations, which acquired the status of oral Torah.

Israel Abrahams: …enduring works on Judaism, particularly Jewish Life in the Middle Ages (1896).

Judaism: The literature of Judaism: A paradigmatic statement is made in the narrative that begins with Genesis and ends with Joshua. In the early chapters of Genesis, the divine is described as the creator of humankind and the entire natural order. In the stories of…

Jewish Museum, museum in New York City displaying art and objects of Jewish culture from the past 4,000 years. The Jewish Museum was founded in 1904 with only 26 pieces and was originally located in the library of the Jewish Theological Seminary. In 1946 the museum moved to the Felix Warburg

Jewish Museum Berlin, museum in Berlin showcasing German Jewish cultural history and works of art. The Jewish Museum is among Germany’s most-visited museums and commemorates the history of German Jews. The original Jewish Museum existed from 1933 until 1938, when it was closed by the Gestapo and

Abraham Zevi Idelsohn: …and in 1910 founded the Institute for Jewish Music. The previous year, funded by the Vienna Academy of Sciences, he had begun collecting from oral tradition the music of various European, Asian, and North African Jewish groups. The result was Thesaurus of Hebrew Oriental Melodies, 10 vol. (1914–32). This work…

Jerusalem: Education of Jerusalem: The National Library of Israel (1892), with more than five million volumes in its main and dependent libraries, is Israel’s largest. It holds the foremost collection of books, incunabula, and periodicals of Judaica in the world, as well as an excellent library on all fields, particularly…

Palestine: World War I and after: …purchases in 1921 by the Jewish National Fund (established in 1901), which led to the eviction of Arab peasants (fellahin), further aroused Arab opposition that was expressed throughout the region through the Christian-Muslim associations. On May 1, 1921, more serious anti-Zionist riots broke out in Jaffa, spreading to Petaḥ Tiqwa…

Jewish partisan, one of approximately 20,000–30,000 irregular fighters who participated in the Jewish resistance against Nazi Germany and its allies during World War II. In western Europe those Jewish resisters often joined forces with other organized paramilitary groups, but in eastern Europe,

Jewish philosophy, any of various kinds of reflective thought engaged in by those identified as being Jews. A brief treatment of Jewish philosophy follows. For full treatment, see Judaism: Jewish philosophy. In the Middle Ages, Jewish philosophy encompassed any methodical and disciplined thought

Henrietta Szold: …editorial secretary of the five-year-old Jewish Publication Society. During her 23 years in that post she was largely responsible for the publication of English versions of Moritz Lazarus’s The Ethics of Judaism, Nahum Slouschz’s Renascence of Hebrew Literature, and other works and for a revised edition of Heinrich Graetz’s five-volume…

Henrietta Szold: …editorial secretary of the five-year-old Jewish Publication Society. During her 23 years in that post she was largely responsible for the publication of English versions of Moritz Lazarus’s The Ethics of Judaism, Nahum Slouschz’s Renascence of Hebrew Literature, and other works and for a revised edition of Heinrich Graetz’s five-volume…

Israel Abrahams: Montefiore, of the Jewish Quarterly Review. Although of strict Orthodox upbringing, Abrahams was among the founders of the Liberal movement, an Anglo-Jewish group that stressed the universality of Jewish ethics, minimized ritual and custom, and originally eschewed Zionism.

Jewish religious year, the cycle of Sabbaths and holidays that are commonly observed by the Jewish religious community—and officially in Israel by the Jewish secular community as well. The Sabbath and festivals are bound to the Jewish calendar, reoccur at fixed intervals, and are celebrated at home

First Jewish Revolt, (ad 66–70), Jewish rebellion against Roman rule in Judaea. The First Jewish Revolt was the result of a long series of clashes in which small groups of Jews offered sporadic resistance to the Romans, who in turn responded with severe countermeasures. In the fall of ad 66 the

Bar Kokhba Revolt, (132–135 ce), Jewish rebellion against Roman rule in Judaea. The revolt was preceded by years of clashes between Jews and Romans in the area. Finally, in 132 ce, the misrule of Tinnius Rufus, the Roman governor of Judaea, combined with the emperor Hadrian’s intention to found a

Ida Kaminska: …her homeland to found the Jewish State Theatre of Poland (1945), which received official recognition and financial aid from the state until she abandoned Poland for the United States in 1968. Her best-known stage performance was the title role in Mirele Efros by Jacob Gordin in a version she adapted…

Israel: Zionism: Theodor Herzl began advocating a Jewish state as the political solution for both anti-Semitism (he had covered the sensational Dreyfus affair in France) and a Jewish secular identity. Herzl’s brief and dramatic bid for international support from the major powers at the First Zionist Congress (August 1897) failed, but, after…

Jewish Theological Seminary of America (JTSA), the academic and spiritual centre of Conservative Judaism in the United States. Founded in New York City in 1886 as the Jewish Theological Seminary Association, the institution was first headed by Rabbi Sabato Morais, whose declared goal was to educate

The Rabbinical Assembly, organization of Conservative rabbis in the United States, Canada, Latin America, Europe, and Israel. It was founded in 1900 as the Alumni Association of the Jewish Theological Seminary and was reorganized in 1940 as the Rabbinical Assembly of America; in 1962 it acquired

Kaufmann Kohler: …wrote his most profound work, Jewish Theology Systematically and Historically Considered (1918). Prior to Kohler’s work, the philosophical literature of the Middle Ages and the rabbinical writings were the only available materials to serve the needs of the student. Kohler’s book methodically and succinctly sets forth the teachings of Jewish…

Norman Jewison was a Canadian television and film director and producer known for his adroit depictions of American social ills. His notable movies included In the Heat of the Night (1967), Fiddler on the Roof (1971), Jesus Christ Superstar (1973), A Soldier’s Story (1984), and Moonstruck (1987).

Norman Jewison was a Canadian television and film director and producer known for his adroit depictions of American social ills. His notable movies included In the Heat of the Night (1967), Fiddler on the Roof (1971), Jesus Christ Superstar (1973), A Soldier’s Story (1984), and Moonstruck (1987).

comet: The modern era: …finally rewarded when British astronomer David Jewitt and Vietnamese American astronomer Jane Luu found an object well beyond Neptune in an orbit with a semimajor axis of 43.9 AU, an eccentricity of only 0.0678, and an inclination of only 2.19°. The object, officially designated (15760) 1992 QB1, has a diameter…

Canadian literature: From settlement to 1900: …a captivity narrative that describes Jewitt’s experience as a prisoner of the Nootka (Nuu-chah-nulth) chief Maquinna after Jewitt was shipwrecked off Canada’s west coast; on the whole, it presents a sympathetic ethnography of the Nuu-chah-nulth people. The Diary of Mrs. John Graves Simcoe (1911) records the everyday life in 1792–96…

Frederic David Mocatta: …work is the survey The Jews of Spain and Portugal and the Inquisition (1877), which was later translated into several languages. Mocatta is perhaps best remembered as a patron of learning and as a bibliophile. He subsidized the publication of such major works as Zur Geschichte und Literatur (1845; “On…

American literature: Lyric fictionists: …War I: Michael Gold’s harsh Jews Without Money (1930) and Henry Roth’s Proustian Call It Sleep (1934), one of the greatest novels of the decade. They followed in the footsteps of Anzia Yezierska, a prolific writer of the 1920s whose passionate books about immigrant Jews, especially Bread Givers (1925),

Nathan Marcus Adler: …the British Empire, who founded Jews’ College and the United Synagogue.

Sophia Louisa Jex-Blake was a British physician who successfully sought legislation (1876) permitting women in Britain to receive the M.D. degree and a license to practice medicine and surgery. Through her efforts, a medical school for women was opened in London in 1874, and in 1886 she established

Polish literature: Romanticism: Zygmunt Miłkowski (pseudonym Teodor Tomasz Jeż) wrote on a wide range of subjects, including folklore and the history of the Balkan countries. The literary criticism of Maurycy Mochnacki, a passionate advocate of Romanticism and the first Polish critic to link literature with Poland’s political progress,…

Jezebel was the wife of King Ahab, who ruled the kingdom of Israel. By interfering with the exclusive worship of the Hebrew God, Yahweh, by disregarding the rights of the common people, and by defying the great prophets Elijah and Elisha, she provoked the internecine strife that enfeebled Israel

Jezebel, American drama film, released in 1938, that features Bette Davis opposite Henry Fonda in an opulent antebellum romance. Davis, in an Academy Award-winning performance, portrayed Julie Marsden, the strong-willed belle whose impertinent spoiled nature wreaks havoc on her relationship with

Jezebel was the wife of King Ahab, who ruled the kingdom of Israel. By interfering with the exclusive worship of the Hebrew God, Yahweh, by disregarding the rights of the common people, and by defying the great prophets Elijah and Elisha, she provoked the internecine strife that enfeebled Israel

Jezreel, (May God Give Seed), ancient city of Palestine, capital of the northern kingdom of Israel under King Ahab, located on a spur of Mt. Gilboa in Israel. King Saul was slain there in a battle with the Philistines. It was called Esdraelon in the book of Judith; to the crusaders it was Parvum

biblical literature: Hosea: …first, a son, is named Jezreel, to symbolize that the house of Jehu will suffer for the bloody atrocities committed in the Valley of Jezreel by the founder of the dynasty when he annihilated the house of Omri. The second, a daughter, is named Lo Ruḥama (Not pitied), to indicate…

Plain of Esdraelon, lowland in northern Israel, dividing the hilly areas of Galilee in the north and Samaria (in the Israeli-occupied West Bank) in the south. Esdraelon is the Greek derivation of the Hebrew Yizreʿel, meaning “God will sow” or “May God make fruitful,” an allusion to the fertility of

Polish language, West Slavic language belonging to the Lekhitic subgroup and closely related to Czech, Slovak, and the Sorbian languages of eastern Germany; it is spoken by the majority of the present population of Poland. The modern literary language, written in the Roman (Latin) alphabet, dates

electronics: Using MOSFETs: Another type, the junction field-effect transistor, works in a similar fashion but is much less frequently used. The MOSFET consists of two regions: (1) the source (here shown connected to the silicon substrate) and (2) the drain of one conductivity type embedded in a body of the opposite…

John F. Kennedy was the 35th president of the United States (1961–63), who faced a number of foreign crises, especially in Cuba and Berlin, but managed to secure such achievements as the Nuclear Test-Ban Treaty and the Alliance for Progress. He was assassinated while riding in a motorcade in

conspiracy theory: Effects of belief in conspiracy theories: …viewing the Oliver Stone movie JFK (1991) increased belief in a conspiracy to assassinate Kennedy and decreased belief in the official account that Lee Harvey Oswald acted alone. A further outcome was that, compared with people who were about to view the movie, those who had seen it expressed less…

John F. Kennedy, Jr. was an American publisher, lawyer, and member of the prominent Kennedy political family who was the son of U.S. Pres. John F. Kennedy and Jacqueline (née Bouvier) Kennedy (later Onassis). Born less than three weeks after his father, a U.S. senator of Massachusetts, had been

renal system disease: Vascular disease: …in healthy individuals involves the juxtaglomerular apparatus (JGA) and the secretion of renin. Occasionally, following trauma or arising spontaneously as a result of vascular disease, one or the other of the main renal arteries becomes constricted (renal artery stenosis). The fall in blood pressure beyond the constriction leads to increased…

Jhabua, town, western Madhya Pradesh state, central India. It is situated on an upland plateau about 45 miles (72 km) northwest of Dhar. Jhabua was founded in the 16th century by a Banjari freebooter and served as the capital of Jhabua princely state. Today it is a local agricultural and timber

Ruth Prawer Jhabvala was a novelist and screenwriter, well known for her witty and insightful portrayals of contemporary Indian lives and, especially, for her 46 years as a pivotal member of Ismail Merchant and James Ivory’s filmmaking team. Jhabvala’s family was Jewish, and in 1939 they emigrated

Jhalawar, town, far southeastern Rajasthan state, northwestern India. It is situated on an upland plateau just west of the Kali Sindh River, a tributary of the Chambal River, about 40 miles (64 km) southeast of Kota. The old town of Jhalrapatan (Patan) was founded as a cantonment (military

Jalor, town, southwestern Rajasthan state, northwestern India. It lies just south of the Sukri River, which is a tributary of the Luni River. Jalor was a medieval stronghold that served as the 12th-century capital of the Cauhan Rajputs (the warrior rulers of the historic region of Rajputana). It

Jhalawar, town, far southeastern Rajasthan state, northwestern India. It is situated on an upland plateau just west of the Kali Sindh River, a tributary of the Chambal River, about 40 miles (64 km) southeast of Kota. The old town of Jhalrapatan (Patan) was founded as a cantonment (military

dhyāna, in Indian philosophy, a stage in the process of meditation leading to Nirvāṇa. See Buddhist

Jhang Sadar, city consisting of historical twin towns, headquarters of Jhang district, Faisalabad division, Punjab province, Pakistan, situated just east of the Chenab River. The city was first incorporated as an administrative unit under the British raj, combining the towns of Maghiana and Jhang.

Jhang Sadar, city consisting of historical twin towns, headquarters of Jhang district, Faisalabad division, Punjab province, Pakistan, situated just east of the Chenab River. The city was first incorporated as an administrative unit under the British raj, combining the towns of Maghiana and Jhang.

Jhansi, city, southwestern Uttar Pradesh state, northern India. It lies in the western part of the upland Bundelkhand region, along the border with Madhya Pradesh state and just west of the Betwa River. The city, which is enclosed by a wall, expanded around a fort built in 1613 by the ruler of

Jharia, coalfield and former town, northern Jharkhand state, eastern India. The coalfield lies in the Damodar River valley and covers about 110 square miles (280 square km). The bituminous coal produced there is suitable for coke (most of India’s coal comes from the Jharia and Raniganj fields in

Jharkhand, state of India, located in the northeastern part of the country. Jharkhand is bordered by the states of Bihar to the north, West Bengal to the east, Odisha to the south, Chhattisgarh to the west, and Uttar Pradesh to the northwest. Its capital is Ranchi. Jharkhand, one of India’s newest

Jharkhand Mukti Morcha (JMM), regional political party of Jharkhand state, northeastern India. It has had only a limited presence on the national political scene in New Delhi. The JMM was formed in 1973 as a movement to spearhead what would become a decades-long effort to establish a separate

Jharkhand Mukti Morcha (JMM), regional political party of Jharkhand state, northeastern India. It has had only a limited presence on the national political scene in New Delhi. The JMM was formed in 1973 as a movement to spearhead what would become a decades-long effort to establish a separate

Jhelum, town, Punjab province, northeastern Pakistan. The town lies just west of the Jhelum River (there bridged by both road and rail) and is connected by rail and the Grand Trunk Road with Peshawar and Lahore. The old town, across the river, may have been Bucephala, founded by Alexander the Great

Jhelum River, river of northwestern India and northern and eastern Pakistan. It constitutes the westernmost of the five rivers of the Punjab region that merge with the Indus River in eastern Pakistan. The Jhelum rises from a deep spring at Vernag, in western Jammu and Kashmir union territory, in

Battle of the Hydaspes, (326 bce), the last great battle fought by Alexander the Great during his Asian campaign. Alexander’s army defeated the forces of the Indian king Porus (Paurava) in what is now northeastern Pakistan. Alexander’s superior tactics, including crossing a river in pouring rain to

Rudolf von Jhering was a German legal scholar, sometimes called the father of sociological jurisprudence. He developed a philosophy of social utilitarianism that, in emphasizing the needs of society, differed from the individualist approach of the English utilitarian philosopher Jeremy Bentham.

Jharia, coalfield and former town, northern Jharkhand state, eastern India. The coalfield lies in the Damodar River valley and covers about 110 square miles (280 square km). The bituminous coal produced there is suitable for coke (most of India’s coal comes from the Jharia and Raniganj fields in

Jind, city, central Haryana state, northwestern India. It is located about 70 miles (110 km) northwest of Delhi. Jind is said to have been founded by the Pandavas of the Mahabharata epic, who built a temple around which the town of Jaintapuri (Jind) grew. It was formerly one of the princely