capital punishment: The abolition movement: …Rights (1983) and to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1989) have been established, under which countries party to the convention and the covenant undertake not to carry out executions. The Council of Europe (1994) and the EU (1998) established as a condition of membership in their organizations…

human rights: The International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights: The International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR) was opened for signature on December 16, 1966, and entered into force on January 3, 1976. Also part of the International Bill of Human Rights, it elaborates…

Baraboo: The International Crane Foundation promotes the worldwide conservation of cranes and conducts research and breeding programs at its Baraboo headquarters. Inc. 1882. Pop. (2000) 10,711; (2010) 12,048.

Lord’s Cricket Ground: …cricket’s world governing body, the International Cricket Council (ICC), until 2005, when the headquarters moved to Dubai, and Lord’s continues to be the headquarters of the England and Wales Cricket Board (ECB). Some of the greatest moments in cricketing history have taken place at Lord’s, including the presentation of the…

Lord’s Cricket Ground: …cricket’s world governing body, the International Cricket Council (ICC), until 2005, when the headquarters moved to Dubai, and Lord’s continues to be the headquarters of the England and Wales Cricket Board (ECB). Some of the greatest moments in cricketing history have taken place at Lord’s, including the presentation of the…

international law: The responsibility of states: …be held responsible for “international crimes” (comprising internationally wrongful acts resulting from the breach by a state of an international obligation so essential for the protection of the international community’s fundamental interests that its breach is recognized as a crime by that community). Examples given included aggression, colonial domination,…

International Criminal Court (ICC), permanent judicial body established by the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court (1998) to investigate, prosecute, and try individuals accused of genocide, war crimes, and crimes against humanity and to impose prison sentences upon individuals who are

international criminal law, body of laws, norms, and rules governing international crimes and their repression, as well as rules addressing conflict and cooperation between national criminal-law systems. See also international law; conflict of laws. Criminal law prohibits and punishes behaviour

Interpol, intergovernmental organization that facilitates cooperation between the criminal police forces of more than 180 countries. Interpol aims to promote the widest-possible mutual assistance between criminal police forces and to establish and develop institutions likely to contribute to the

Interpol, intergovernmental organization that facilitates cooperation between the criminal police forces of more than 180 countries. Interpol aims to promote the widest-possible mutual assistance between criminal police forces and to establish and develop institutions likely to contribute to the

Rwanda genocide of 1994: ICTR: In November 1994 the UN responded to charges of genocide in Rwanda by creating the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR; formally known as the International Criminal Tribunal for the Prosecution of Persons Responsible for Genocide and Other Serious Violations of International Humanitarian Law…

Croatia: Independent Croatia: …particularly over cooperation with the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (ICTY), which indicted several Croatian generals who, according to many Croats, had heroic wartime reputations.

Rwanda genocide of 1994: ICTR: In November 1994 the UN responded to charges of genocide in Rwanda by creating the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR; formally known as the International Criminal Tribunal for the Prosecution of Persons Responsible for Genocide and Other Serious Violations of International Humanitarian Law…

Croatia: Independent Croatia: …particularly over cooperation with the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (ICTY), which indicted several Croatian generals who, according to many Croats, had heroic wartime reputations.

Louise Arbour: …chief executive officer of the International Crisis Group, a nonprofit organization devoted to the resolution of conflicts around the world. In 2017 UN Secretary-General António Guterres named Arbour special representative for international migration.

International Date Line, imaginary line extending between the North Pole and the South Pole and arbitrarily demarcating each calendar day from the next. It corresponds along most of its length to the 180th meridian of longitude but deviates eastward through the Bering Strait to avoid dividing

dentistry: Organizations: The Fédération Dentaire Internationale (International Dental Federation) was founded in 1900 and has met annually except in times of war. It has sponsored international dental congresses that are planned to meet every five years. Other international organizations include the Association Internationale pour la Recherche Dentaire (International Association for Dental…

International Development Association (IDA), United Nations specialized agency affiliated with but legally and financially distinct from the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (World Bank). It was instituted in September 1960 to make loans on more flexible terms than those of the

Comecon, organization established in January 1949 to facilitate and coordinate the economic development of the eastern European countries belonging to the Soviet bloc. Comecon’s original members were the Soviet Union, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Poland, and Romania. Albania joined in

economic system: From industrial to state capitalism: …third change again involves the international economy, this time through the creation of new institutions for the management of international economic trade. A number of capitalist nations have met the challenges of the fast-growing international economy by joining the energies of the private sector (including organized labour) to the financial…

map: Development of reference spheroids: An International Ellipsoid of Reference was adopted by the Geodetic and Geophysical Union in 1924 for application throughout the world.

Otto Neurath: …scientific philosophy and edited the International Encyclopedia of Unified Science (1937), the principal effort of his Institute for the Unity of Science, which he had founded at The Hague in 1936, two years after moving to the Netherlands. The war years from 1941 to 1945 he spent at Oxford.

peak oil theory: In 2010 the International Energy Agency’s (IEA’s) annual World Energy Outlook speculated that the global peak of conventional crude-oil production may have taken place in 2006, when 70 million barrels were produced per day. By contrast, the influential Cambridge Energy Research Associates (CERA) estimated in 2005 that current…

international payment and exchange: exchange, respectively, any payment made by one country to another and the market in which national currencies are bought and sold by those who require them for such payments. Countries may make payments in settlement of a trade debt, for capital investment, or for other…

trade show, temporary market organized to promote trade, where buyers and sellers gather to transact business and to explore business opportunities. Trade shows are organized at regular intervals, generally at the same location and period of the year, and they may last for a few days or several

Venice Biennale, international art exhibition featuring architecture, visual arts, cinema, dance, music, and theatre that is held in the Castello district of Venice every two years during the summer. The Biennale was founded in 1895 as the International Exhibition of Art of the City of Venice to

Armory Show, an exhibition of painting and sculpture held from Feb. 17 to March 15, 1913, at the Sixty-ninth Regiment Armory in New York City. The show, a decisive event in the development of American art, was originally conceived by its organizers, the Association of American Painters and

Eiffel Tower: Background and construction: …French government was organizing the International Exposition of 1889 to celebrate the centenary of the French Revolution, a competition was held for designs for a suitable monument. More than 100 plans were submitted, and the Centennial Committee accepted that of the noted bridge engineer Gustave Eiffel. Eiffel’s concept of a…

world’s fair: Later years: Subsequent expositions—in 2012 (Yŏsu, South Korea), on the importance of the world’s oceans and coastlines; in 2015 (Milan), on food and resource consumption; and in 2017 (Astana, Kazakhstan), on the future of energy—were all relative successes but came nowhere near the attendance numbers of Expo Shanghai.

International Falls, city, seat (1906) of Koochiching county, northern Minnesota, U.S. The city is situated opposite Fort Frances, Ontario, Canada, on the Rainy River (bridged), near its outlet on Rainy Lake. The site was first settled in 1870 by Alexander Baker and was called Koochiching (the

Olympic Games: National Olympic committees, international federations, and organizing committees: …sport there must be an international federation (IF), to which a requisite number of applicable national governing bodies must belong. The IFs promote and regulate their sport on an international level. Since 1986 they have been responsible for determining all questions of Olympic eligibility and competition in their sport. The…

International Federation for Information and Documentation, international library organization that was founded in 1895 as the Institut International de Bibliographie (IIB) to promote a unified and centralized approach to bibliographic classification. The IIB was founded by two Belgian lawyers,

International Federation for Information and Documentation, international library organization that was founded in 1895 as the Institut International de Bibliographie (IIB) to promote a unified and centralized approach to bibliographic classification. The IIB was founded by two Belgian lawyers,

FIFA, world governing body of association football (soccer), founded in Paris in 1904. FIFA is headquartered in Zürich, and its membership includes more than 200 national football associations. As association football’s governing authority, FIFA sets the rules of play, establishes standards for

Lena Madesin Phillips: …in the founding of the International Federation of Business and Professional Women (1930). She served as president of the International Federation from then until 1947. She was also president of the National Council of Women (1931–35), and in 1933 she was president of the International Conference of Women held in…

camping: History: …of Camping and Caravanning (Fédération Internationale de Camping et de Caravanning; FICC) was formed—the first international camping organization.

World Confederation of Labour (WCL), labour confederation founded as the International Federation of Christian Trade Unions in 1920 to represent the interests of Christian labour unions in western Europe and Latin America. It was reconstituted under its present name in 1968. Although the

International Federation of Human Rights, international nongovernmental organization of human rights groups focused on promoting adherence to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948). Established in 1922 with 10 members, the organization grew to include more than 150 human rights groups

library: Associations and international organizations: The International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions (IFLA; Fédération Internationale des Associations de Bibliothécaires et des Bibliothèques, or FIAB) was founded in 1927 and first met formally in Rome in 1928. The organization publishes the IFLA Journal.

pickleball: History, organization, and expansion: In 2010 the International Federation of Pickleball (IFP) was organized to help develop the sport and promote it around the world. The original member associations were located in the United States, Canada, India, and Spain. Over the next decade the number of countries with IFP member associations and…

International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, international organization responsible for encouraging the formation of and aiding national Red Cross and Red Crescent societies. The federation shared the Nobel Prize for Peace with the International Committee of the Red Cross in

social settlement: …organization in 1926 of the International Federation of Settlements and Neighborhood Centers (IFS). The IFS maintains consultative status with the United Nations Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC).

International Federation of Sports Medicine (FIMS), confederation primarily comprising national sports medicine associations from across the globe. The organization also includes continental associations, regional associations, and various individual members. It is the oldest and largest such

Canadian literature: Contemporary trends: …events such as the annual International Festival of Poetry in Trois-Rivières, Quebec, launched in 1985, attest to its vitality.

Gregory La Cava: Early life and work: …1917 he was heading the International Film Service (IFS), an animated cartoon studio founded by William Randolph Hearst. There La Cava collaborated with noted animator Walter Lantz. After IFS closed in 1918, La Cava continued to make animated shorts, eventually directing more than 100, some of which were based on…

International Finance Corporation (IFC), United Nations (UN) specialized agency affiliated with but legally separate from the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (World Bank). Founded in 1956 to stimulate the economic development of its members by providing capital for private

Dublin: Finance and other services: In 1987 the International Financial Services Centre was established in the former northern dock area, under the Custom House Development Authority. This venture reflected the country’s commitment to the single European market, with its attendant abolition of duties and tariffs within the EU. It began the regeneration of…

calendar: Modern schemes for reform: …schemes have been put forward—the International Fixed Calendar and the World Calendar.

folk dance: The International Folk Dance movement: Another influential teacher from the settlement movement was Vytautas Finadar (Vyts) Beliajus, a Lithuanian who immigrated to the United States as a teenager. His family joined relatives in the Lithuanian community in Chicago. He organized the Lithuanian Youth Society, where he…

tiger: Tigers and humans: …Russia, in 2010 for the International Forum on Tiger Conservation and agreed to help one another double overall tiger numbers by 2022.

art fraud: Victims and resources: …1991, grew out of the International Foundation for Art Research (IFAR: founded 1969), a not-for-profit organization that initiated and maintained (until 1997) an international database of stolen works of art, antiques, and collectables. After 1998 ALR assumed maintenance, although IFAR retains ownership, and the two organizations work closely together.

freestyle wrestling, one of three styles of wrestling used in international amateur competition (the others are Greco-Roman wrestling and sambo) under supervision of the Fédération Internationale de Lutte Amateur (International Amateur Wrestling Federation). It was derived from the English

Michigan City: …miles (8 km) south, and International Friendship Gardens (1935), just to the east, has plantings representative of many nations. Michigan City is the headquarters for the Chicago South Shore and South Bend Railroad, which provides electric commuter rail service between Chicago and northern Indiana. Inc. 1836. Pop. (2000) 32,900; Michigan…

International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), United Nations (UN) specialized agency that supports increased food production in poor communities. Partly in response to severe famines in the southern Sahara in the early 1970s, the 1974 World Food Conference adopted a resolution that

fishing: Big-game fishing: The establishment of the International Game Fish Association (IGFA) in 1939 did much to promote big-game fishing and to regulate it—supervising marine fishing competitions, establishing various weight categories for lines, and keeping championship records. The IGFA also promoted scientific study by encouraging the tagging of released fish to establish…

International Gamma-Ray Astrophysics Laboratory (Integral), European Space Agency–Russian–U.S. satellite observatory designed to study gamma rays emitted from astronomical objects. Integral was launched by Russia from the Baikonur Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan on October 17, 2002. It carried a gamma-ray

International Geographical Union (IGU), international body of geographers, founded in 1922, with a membership representing some 100 countries by way of each member country’s National Committee for Geography. Its charter calls for the study of geographic problems, the organization of various

Quaternary: …was made at the 18th International Geological Congress (IGC) in London that the base of the Pleistocene Series should be fixed in marine rocks exposed in the coastal areas of Calabria in southern Italy. As ratified by the International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS) in 1985, the type section for boundary…

International Geophysical Year (IGY), worldwide program of geophysical research that was conducted from July 1957 to December 1958. IGY was directed toward a systematic study of the Earth and its planetary environment. The IGY encompassed research in 11 fields of geophysics: aurora and airglow,

gold standard: In an international gold-standard system, gold or a currency that is convertible into gold at a fixed price is used as a medium of international payments. Under such a system, exchange rates between countries are fixed; if exchange rates rise above or fall below the fixed mint…

Western painting: International Gothic: The style of European painting prevalent during the last half of the 14th century and the early years of the 15th is frequently called International Gothic. There were certainly at that time features common to European painting generally. In particular, figures were elegant…

governance: For example, the term international governance often refers to the pattern of rule found at the global level where the United Nations (UN) is too weak to resemble the kind of state that can impose its will on its territory. Likewise, the term corporate governance refers to patterns of…

international organization: …between the more than 250 international governmental organizations (IGOs), which have been established by intergovernmental agreements and whose members are states, and the approximately 6,000 nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), whose members are associations or individuals.

Maurice Ashley: …African American to earn an International Grandmaster chess title.

International HapMap Project, an international collaboration aimed at the identification of genetic variations contributing to human disease through the development of a haplotype (haploid genotype) map of the human genome. A haplotype is a set of alleles (differing forms of genes) that occur close

Navistar International Corporation, leading American producer of medium- and heavy-duty trucks and for many years a major manufacturer of farm and construction equipment. The company is a direct descendant of the business activities of Cyrus McCormick, particularly his invention of the mechanical

Helsinki process: …to the formation of the International Helsinki Federation for Human Rights (IHF) in 1982.

International New York Times, daily newspaper published in Paris, France, that has long been the staple source of English-language news for American expatriates, tourists, and businesspeople in Europe. It is considered the first “global” newspaper. The International New York Times’s roots are in

Bela Lugosi: …the Paramount Pictures all-star comedy International House (1933) and Ernst Lubitsch’s Ninotchka (1939).

International Humanist and Ethical Union (IHEU), global union of humanist and related organizations, founded in Amsterdam in 1952. In its first 50 years the IHEU grew to include more than 100 member organizations. Headquarters are in London. The IHEU promotes humanism as an ethical philosophy,

map: World status of mapping and basic data: The International Hydrographic Organization (until 1967 Bureau), based at Monaco, attempts to stimulate cooperation in improvement of hydrographic data in general. This organization’s General Bathymetric Chart of the Oceans shows existing knowledge and is revised from time to time as new data are accumulated.

map: World status of mapping and basic data: The International Hydrographic Organization (until 1967 Bureau), based at Monaco, attempts to stimulate cooperation in improvement of hydrographic data in general. This organization’s General Bathymetric Chart of the Oceans shows existing knowledge and is revised from time to time as new data are accumulated.

International Hydrological Decade, research program on water problems that began on Jan. 1, 1965, following a resolution unanimously adopted by the 13th session of the General Conference of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (unesco) in November 1964. National

ice hockey: International ice hockey: The International Ice Hockey Federation (IIHF) was formed in Europe in 1908. Its five original members were Great Britain, Bohemia, Switzerland, France, and Belgium. The first European championship was held at Avants, Switzerland, in 1910, with Great Britain the winner. From that time the federation broadened…

International Ice Patrol, patrol established in 1914 by the agreement of 16 nations with shipping interests in the North Atlantic Ocean after the Titanic collided with an iceberg and sank (1912). The patrol locates icebergs in the North Atlantic, follows and predicts their drift, and issues

Bay of Bengal: Study and exploration: …a notable effort was the International Indian Ocean Expedition (1960–65), during which a considerable amount of information was gathered. The National Institute of Oceanography, established in India in 1966, furthered this research, utilizing the vessels Sagar Kanya and Gaveshani. Indian Ocean fishery research and development programs have been carried out…

conflict of laws: The nature of conflicts law: …Unification of Private Law (Unidroit), established in Rome in 1926, sponsors projects for the unification of substantive law. Examples include its early efforts with respect to international sales law and the more recent drafting of the Unidroit Principles of International Commercial Contracts (2004). In Latin America, Mercosur (also known…

public administration: Public policy approach: …organization, which eventually became the International Institute of Administrative Sciences (IIAS), had been established. At first its membership consisted principally of scholars and practitioners of administrative law in the countries of continental Europe. By the late 1980s the IIAS had a membership drawn from some 70 countries. Its triennial congresses…

David Lubin: …the founding (1905) of the International Institute of Agriculture as a world clearinghouse for data on crops, prices, and trade to protect the common interests of farmers of all nations.

Paul Otlet: …and La Fontaine established the International Institute of Bibliography and announced plans to create a Universal Bibliographic Repertory that would serve as a global clearinghouse for bibliographical data. Despite considerable resistance from other European librarians, they pressed forward with their plans, creating a headquarters for the institute and obtaining recognition…

heraldry: International organizations: From these was established the International Institute of Genealogy and Heraldry, with its headquarters in Madrid.

International Investment Bank, international bank, founded in 1970 and operational in 1971, designed to provide long- and medium-term credit for capital construction in member states. The founding members were Bulgaria, Cuba, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Hungary, Mongolia, Poland, Romania, and the

canals and inland waterways: Administration: -Canadian International Joint Commission has functioned since 1909 with general authority over the boundary waters. The St. Lawrence Seaway is a joint project administered by the St. Lawrence Seaway Authority (now the St. Lawrence Seaway Management Corporation) in Canada and the Great Lakes St. Lawrence Seaway…

softball: …later enlarged to form the International Joint Rules Committee on Softball, which came to include representatives of a number of organizations that promote and sponsor softball. The Amateur Softball Association of America, organized in 1933, came to be the recognized governing agency for promotion and control of organized national competition.

Yves Klein: …and in 1960 he patented International Klein Blue, called IKB. In 1958, as part of a live performance, Klein choreographed female models who applied his paint to their bodies and then pressed their painted bodies on canvas or paper spread on the wall and on the floor. These “living brush”…

korfball: …Federation, which was established as Fédération Internationale de Korfball in 1933, increased its membership to more than 50 countries by the early 21st century.

International Labour Organization (ILO), specialized agency of the United Nations (UN) dedicated to improving labour conditions and living standards throughout the world. Established in 1919 by the Treaty of Versailles as an affiliated agency of the League of Nations, the ILO became the first

International Ladies’ Garment Workers’ Union (ILGWU), former industrial union in the United States and Canada that represented workers in the women’s clothing industry. When the ILGWU was formed in 1900, most of its members were Jewish immigrants employed in sweatshops—i.e., small manufacturing

International Campaign to Ban Landmines (ICBL), international coalition of organizations in some 100 countries that was established in 1992 to ban the use, production, trade, and stockpiling of antipersonnel land mines. In 1997 the coalition was awarded the Nobel Prize for Peace, which it shared

history of logic: Leibniz: …devising what he called a “universally characteristic language” (lingua characteristica universalis) that would, first, notationally represent concepts by displaying the more basic concepts of which they were composed, and second, naturally represent (in the manner of graphs or pictures, “iconically”) the concept in a way that could be easily grasped…

international law, the body of legal rules, norms, and standards that apply between sovereign states and other entities that are legally recognized as international actors. The term was coined by the English philosopher Jeremy Bentham (1748–1832). According to Bentham’s classic definition,

arbitration: Arbitration provisions of international treaties: The UN’s International Law Commission submitted to the General Assembly in 1955 a Convention on Arbitral Procedure. Its model rules would not become binding on any UN member-state unless they were accepted by a state in an arbitration treaty or in a special arbitral agreement. However, the…

Calvo Doctrine: …scholar Carlos Calvo, in his International Law of Europe and America in Theory and Practice (1868). It affirmed that rules governing the jurisdiction of a country over aliens and the collection of indemnities should apply equally to all nations, regardless of size. It further stated that foreigners who held property…

Institute of International Law, international organization founded in Ghent, Belgium, in 1873 to develop and implement international law as a codified science responsible for the legal morality and integrity of the civilized world. In 1904 the Institute of International Law was awarded the Nobel

Lassa Francis Lawrence Oppenheim: Oppenheim’s most important book is International Law: A Treatise, 2 vol. (1905–06), in which he elaborated an international jurisprudence based on specific agreements and customs among nations rather than on theoretical prescriptions. Although he emphasized the supremacy of national laws and national sovereignty over international law, he came, during and…

Davis Cup, trophy awarded to the winner of an annual international lawn-tennis tournament originally for amateur men’s teams. The official name is the International Lawn Tennis Challenge Trophy. The trophy was donated in 1900 by American Dwight F. Davis for a competition between teams from the

tennis: …to rules sanctioned by the International Tennis Federation (ITF), the world governing body of the sport.

baseball: Segregation: …rosters of clubs in the International League, one rung below the majors. At least 15 other Black players were in lesser professional leagues. Although they suffered harassment and discrimination off the field, they were grudgingly accepted by most of their teammates and opponents.

Frédéric Passy: …Peace, later known as the French Society for International Arbitration. After the Franco-German War (1870–71) he proposed independence and permanent neutrality for Alsace-Lorraine. As a member of the French Chamber of Deputies (from 1881), he successfully urged arbitration of a dispute between France and the Netherlands concerning the French Guiana–Surinam…

Negro league: Early Negro leagues: …was in 1906 when the International League of Independent Base Ball Clubs was formed in the Philadelphia area. It had two white teams and four Black ones. The championship game pitted two Black teams against each other and attracted 10,000 fans to the stadium of the Philadelphia Athletics. (This was…