Lee Iacocca was an American automobile executive who was president (1978–92) and chairman of the board (1979–92) of Chrysler Corporation, credited with reviving the foundering company. He notably secured the largest amount of federal financial assistance ever given to a private corporation at that

International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), autonomous intergovernmental organization dedicated to increasing the contribution of atomic energy to the world’s peace and well-being and ensuring that agency assistance is not used for military purposes. The IAEA and its director general, Mohamed

Abdullah II: Domestic policy: …Abdullah sought to restrain the Islamic Action Front, the political arm of the Muslim Brotherhood in Jordan and the country’s largest opposition group, and pushed electoral reforms that were intended to increase voting based on platform rather than personal or tribal interests.

Ezer Weizman: …the founding officers of the Israel Air Force (IAF), a branch of the Israel Defense Forces (IDF). In 1958 Weizman was appointed commander in chief of the IAF and set out to transform and modernize it, particularly its strategy and tactics. His meticulous training and detailed preparation laid the foundation…

Pakistan: The government of Imran Khan: …credit for the attack, the Indian Air Force conducted air strikes in Pakistan for the first time in five decades. Though India claimed it had destroyed a large training camp belonging to the militant group, Pakistan denied that any such camp had existed and said that India had struck an…

Industrial Areas Foundation (IAF), a network of faith organizations from a variety of religious denominations in primarily low-income communities across the United States, Canada, and Europe. Its mission is to help ordinary citizens participate in the public arena in order to improve conditions in

Iago, fictional character, the villain of William Shakespeare’s tragedy Othello (written 1603–04). One of Shakespeare’s most intriguing and plausible villains, Iago frequently takes the audience or reader into his confidence, a device that encourages close observation of his skillful manipulations

Iacchus, minor deity associated with the Eleusinian Mysteries, the best known of the ancient Greek mystery religions. On the day preceding the commencement of the mysteries, Iacchus’ name was invoked with the names of the earth goddess Demeter and her daughter Kore (Persephone) during the

Guinea-Bissau: Independence of Guinea-Bissau: Kumba Ialá.

gnosticism: Apocryphon of John: …being, a ruler (archon) named Ialdabaoth, who is a dark caricature of the creator God of Genesis and the demiurge of Platonism. Wisdom, the lowest entity in the realm of perfection, creates Ialdabaoth in an unauthorized attempt to produce a likeness of herself. Ialdabaoth in turn creates the material cosmos…

Ialomița, județ (county), southeastern Romania, occupying an area of 1,719 square mi (4,453 square km). Its eastern border is marked by the northward-draining Danube River and the Borcea and Ialomița rivers flow northeastward through the lowlands. Strachina and Fundata lakes are located in the

Ialomiƫa River, river, rising on Mount Omu in the Munƫii Bucegi, part of the Transylvanian Alps (Southern Carpathians), central Romania, and flowing southward and eastward for 250 miles (400 km) to join the Lower Danube just west of Hîrşova. The upper Ialomiƫa Valley receives much water from the

Protogenes: The “Ialysus” and the “Resting Satyr” were among the most renowned of his works.

William Nordhaus: …economic climate system, later called integrated assessment models (IAMs), that incorporated basic theories and results from physics and chemistry and showed how the global economy and climate would evolve under different assumptions about the pace and mechanisms of global warming and the additional climate policies (e.g., carbon taxes or emission…

iamb, metrical foot consisting of one short syllable (as in classical verse) or one unstressed syllable (as in English verse) followed by one long or stressed syllable, as in the word ˘be|cause´ . Considered by the ancient Greeks to approximate the natural rhythm of speech, iambic metres were used

iambe, French satiric verse form consisting of alternating lines of 8 and 12 syllables. The total number of lines is variable. Greek writers, especially Archilochus, used iambics as a vehicle for satire, but the name came into use as a French form in the late 18th and early 19th centuries when

André de Chénier: …of liberty and justice: the Iambes, the last of which dates from very shortly before his execution, are a moving testimonial to the human spirit in the face of persecution.

alexandrine, verse form that is the leading measure in French poetry. It consists of a line of 12 syllables with major stresses on the 6th syllable (which precedes the medial caesura [pause]) and on the last syllable, and one secondary accent in each half line. Because six syllables is a normal

iambic pentameter, in poetry, a line of verse composed of ten syllables arranged in five metrical feet (iambs), each of which consists of an unstressed syllable followed by a stressed syllable. The line can be rhymed, as in sonnets or heroic couplets (pairs of end-rhymed lines found in epic or

tetrameter: Iambic tetrameter is, next to iambic pentameter, the most common metre in English poetry; it is used in the English and Scottish traditional ballads, which are usually composed of four-line stanzas of alternating iambic tetrameter and trimeter.

iamb, metrical foot consisting of one short syllable (as in classical verse) or one unstressed syllable (as in English verse) followed by one long or stressed syllable, as in the word ˘be|cause´ . Considered by the ancient Greeks to approximate the natural rhythm of speech, iambic metres were used

Iamblichus was a Syrian philosopher, a major figure in the philosophical school of Neoplatonism and the founder of its Syrian branch. Though only his minor philosophical works have survived, the basic elements of Iamblichus’ system can be understood from the references to his teachings in the

It is impossible to be an author in Edinburgh without being conscious of the many previous generations of writers for whom the city has provided sustenance and inspiration. The visitor who arrives in Edinburgh by train emerges from Waverley Station (named after Sir Walter Scott’s first novel) onto

Janis Ian is an American singer, songwriter, and musician who wrote multiple popular soft rock songs in the late 1960s and ’70s, most notably “Society’s Child (Baby I’ve Been Thinking),” the story of a white girl pressured by her family and society to relinquish her Black boyfriend. Ian recorded

ICANN: …maintain ultimate stewardship of the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA), which coordinates some of the key technical underpinnings of the Internet, such as managing the DNS root. IANA also controls specific TLDs, such as .arpa. ICANN manages IANA under contract with the DOC’s National Telecommunications and Information Administration, to which…

Iao Valley: Iao Needle, a volcanic monolith 2,250 feet (686 metres) high, soars nearly straight up from the valley floor. A 6-acre (2.5-hectare) section of the valley featuring the Iao Needle is designated a state park and a national natural landmark. A bronze tablet at the base…

Iao Valley, valley, Maui county, northwestern Maui island, Hawaii, U.S. Situated on the eastern slope of Puu Kukui Mountain, it lies just north of Wailuku. Formed by erosion of the caldera whose volcano created the island’s western peninsula, Iao Valley comprises a deep, narrow gorge 5 miles (8 km)

Native American: The outplacement and adoption of indigenous children: …of America in launching the Indian Adoption Project (IAP), the country’s first large-scale transracial adoption program. The IAP eventually moved between 25 and 35 percent of the native children in the United States into interstate adoptions and interstate foster care placements. Essentially all of these children were placed with Euro-American…

Joseph Napolitan: In 1968 he cofounded the International Association of Political Consultants (IAPC); the next year, he founded the American Association of Political Consultants (AAPC). Both organizations were created with the goals of organizing the field and setting professional standards, and they became the two primary organizations for political consultants in the…

Iapetus, outermost of Saturn’s major regular moons, extraordinary because of its great contrast in surface brightness. It was discovered by the Italian-born French astronomer Gian Domenico Cassini in 1671 and named for one of the Titans of Greek mythology. Iapetus has a radius of 718 km (446 miles)

Appalachian orogenic belt: …the shores of the opening Iapetus Ocean. Subduction of the Iapetus led to its destruction and the collision of different continental blocks and island arcs. Those collisions gave rise to three Appalachian orogenies: the Taconic in the Middle Ordovician (about 472 million years ago); the Acadian in the Middle to…

Appalachian orogenic belt: …the shores of the opening Iapetus Ocean. Subduction of the Iapetus led to its destruction and the collision of different continental blocks and island arcs. Those collisions gave rise to three Appalachian orogenies: the Taconic in the Middle Ordovician (about 472 million years ago); the Acadian in the Middle to…

colony collapse disorder: Suspected causes: …wing virus, invertebrate iridescent virus, Israeli acute paralysis virus, Kashmir bee virus, Nosema species, Paenibacillus larvae (American foulbrood), and sacbrood virus. Many of those pathogens are present in increased abundance in hives affected by CCD, and varroa mites are capable of transmitting deadly honeybee viruses, including black queen cell virus…

Messapic language: …spoken by tribes (Messapii and Iapyges) living in the southeastern part of Italy in pre-Roman and early Roman times. Messapic inscriptions date from the 6th to the 1st century bc. The language is believed to be related to the extinct Illyrian languages that were spoken on the east side of…

Dido: …purchased from a local chieftain, Iarbas, a piece of land on which she founded Carthage. The city soon prospered, and Iarbas sought Dido’s hand in marriage. To escape from him, Dido constructed a funeral pyre, on which she stabbed herself before the people. Virgil, however, in his Aeneid, reshaped this…

styrene: The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) lists styrene as possibly carcinogenic (cancer-causing) in humans. The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services classifies styrene as a known carcinogen.

Westmeath, county in the province of Leinster, central Ireland. It is bounded by Counties Cavan (north), Meath (east), Offaly (south), Roscommon (west), and Longford (northwest). Mullingar, in central Westmeath, is the county town (seat). The western boundary of Westmeath is the lower part of Lough

Dublin: Transportation: Irish Railways (Iarnród Éireann), a subsidiary of Córas Iompair Éireann (CIE), the national transport company, provides suburban services and intercity connections with the rest of the country and Northern Ireland. City bus services provide extensive service. Dublin’s international airport is just north of the city…

von Neumann machine: …and John von Neumann—in “Preliminary Discussion of the Logical Design of an Electronic Computing Instrument” (1946). Although many researchers contributed ideas directly or indirectly to the paper, von Neumann was the principal author, and it is frequently cited as the birth certificate of computer science.

accounting: The move toward international accounting standards: …1973 and succeeded by the IASB in 2001; and arms of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development and of the European Economic Community.

accounting: The move toward international accounting standards: …114 professional accounting bodies; the International Accounting Standards Committee (IASC), which was founded in London in 1973 and succeeded by the IASB in 2001; and arms of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development and of the European Economic Community.

Iași, city, northeastern Romania. It is situated on the Bahlui River near its confluence with the Prut River in the Moldavian plain, 8 miles (13 km) west of the border with Moldova and 200 miles (320 km) northeast of Bucharest. There were recognizable settlements at the site in the 7th century. The

Iași, județ (county), northeastern Romania, bounded on the east by Moldova. The southward-flowing Prut River marks the county’s eastern border with Moldova, and the Siret River drains the hilly terrain of the county to the south. Iași county was a part of feudal Moldavia. Iași city is the county

Treaty of Jassy, (Jan. 9, 1792), pact signed at Jassy in Moldavia (modern Iaşi, Romania), at the conclusion of the Russo-Turkish War of 1787–92; it confirmed Russian dominance in the Black Sea. The Russian empress Catherine II the Great had entered the war envisioning a partition of the Ottoman

Iasion, in Greek mythology, according to Homer and Hesiod, Cretan youth loved by Demeter, the corn goddess, who lay with him in a fallow field that had been thrice plowed. Their son was Plutus, the wealth within the soil. According to Apollodorus, Iasion attempted to ravish the goddess and was

Iasion, in Greek mythology, according to Homer and Hesiod, Cretan youth loved by Demeter, the corn goddess, who lay with him in a fallow field that had been thrice plowed. Their son was Plutus, the wealth within the soil. According to Apollodorus, Iasion attempted to ravish the goddess and was

transportation economics: Transportation regulation and deregulation: …fares are established by the International Air Transport Association (IATA), a cartel (or organization) of all the world’s air carriers. Cartels known as conferences also regulate the rates charged by ocean liners that carry cargo on a regular basis. Each conference is made up of member lines that serve certain…

Oceanic art and architecture: The Sepik River regions: The Sawos and the river-dwelling Iatmul, who historically derive from the Sawos, worked in styles totally different from those of the people to the north. Their ceremonial houses were long rectangular structures, with upper stories elevated on posts often carved with ancestral faces and figures. The gables were not of…

disease: Major distinctions: …the disease is classed as iatrogenic. Finally, the disease may be caused by some agent external to the organism, such as a chemical that is a toxic agent. In this case the disease is noncommunicable; that is, it affects only the individual organism exposed to it. The external agent may…

astrology: Purposes of astrology: …forms of astrology, such as iatromathematics (application of astrology to medicine) and military astrology, are variants on one or another of the above.

Santorio Santorio: …an early exponent of the iatrophysical school of medicine, which attempted to explain the workings of the animal body on purely mechanical grounds, and he adapted several of Galileo’s inventions to medical practice, resulting in his development of a clinical thermometer (1612) and a pulse clock (1602).

International Association of Universities (IAU), nongovernmental educational organization founded in 1950 to promote cooperation at the international level among the universities of all countries as well as among other bodies concerned with higher education and research. Membership consists of

International Astronomical Union (IAU), senior body governing international professional astronomical activities worldwide, with headquarters in Paris. It was established in 1919 as the first of a series of international unions for the advancement of specific branches of science. Its professed

ancient Rome: The Flavian emperors: …undue difficulty; but the Sarmatian Iazyges, now firmly in control of the region between the Tisza and Danube rivers, posed a threat for the future.

death: Ancient Egypt: …was the haty, the word ib referring to the heart as a metaphysical entity embodying not only thought, intelligence, memory, and wisdom, but also bravery, sadness, and love. It was the heart in its sense of ib that was weighed in the famous judgment scene depicted in the Ani papyrus…

armour: Modern body armour systems: …replaced the PASGT with the Interceptor Body Armor, or IBA, system. The IBA consists of an “outer tactical vest” made from layered Kevlar, which provides protection against shell fragments and most handgun bullets as large as 9 mm, and two ceramic “small arms protective inserts,” or SAPI plates, which can…

British Broadcasting Corporation: …commercial channel operated by the Independent Television Authority (later the Office of Communications [Ofcom]) in 1955. A second commercial channel commenced broadcasting in 1982. The BBC’s radio monopoly ended with the government’s decision to permit, starting in the early 1970s, local commercial broadcasts.

percussion instrument: Idiophones: …shaped like a temple, the iba like a closed horseshoe. Sacred to the Egyptian goddess Hathor, the iba was played only by women, and after Hathor’s metamorphosis into the goddess Isis it remained sacred to Isis.

Ibadan, capital city of Oyo state, Nigeria, located on seven hills (average elevation 700 feet [200 metres]) about 100 miles (160 km) from the Atlantic coast. It is one of the most populous cities in the country. Ibadan’s beginnings are shrouded in mystery; they were recorded only in oral

Ibadan: The University of Ibadan (1948) and a technical institute are located in the city, and there are many specialized institutions. The university library maintains the largest collection of books in the country. There is also a branch of the National Archives on the university campus.

Beni Isguene: …the 11th century by the Ibāḍīyah, a Berber Muslim heretical sect originally from Tiaret. Beni Isguene’s town walls were restored in 1860, and according to tradition it is a sacred town. Strangers are not allowed in Beni Isguene during the midday prayers that last about four hours; nor are they…

Beni Isguene: …the 11th century by the Ibāḍīyah, a Berber Muslim heretical sect originally from Tiaret. Beni Isguene’s town walls were restored in 1860, and according to tradition it is a sacred town. Strangers are not allowed in Beni Isguene during the midday prayers that last about four hours; nor are they…

baseball: Amateur baseball: …worldwide are represented by the International Baseball Federation (IBAF), which was formed by American Leslie Mann in 1938. The organization, headquartered in Lausanne, Switzerland, has hosted a Baseball World Cup since 1938.

Ibagué, city, central Colombia, on the eastern slopes of the Andean Cordillera Central (Central Mountains). Founded as San Bonifacio de Ibagué in 1550 on the site of an Indian village, it was moved to its present location, on a plain 4,216 feet (1,285 metres) above sea level, because of Indian

Brazil: Conservation and ecology: …chief Brazilian environmental agency (Instituto Brasileiro do Meio Ambiente e dos Recursos Naturais Renováveis, or IBAMA) was created in 1989 in an attempt to reform Brazil’s conservation system. IBAMA, which operates under the Ministry of the Environment, oversees the use of renewable resources, enforces federal environmental laws, and coordinates…

Brunei: Ethnic groups: …indigenous peoples, such as the Iban (or Sea Dayak); various peoples of South Asian descent; and temporary workers, primarily from Asia and Europe.

Austronesian languages: Speech levels and honorific registers: Iban of northwestern Borneo shows an unusually large number of words with what appear to be reversals of the meanings found in cognates in other languages. This, too, may reflect an earlier tradition of speech disguise that succeeded in altering some meanings of the language…

Roncesvalles: …known in relation to the Pass of Roncesvalles, or Puerto de Ibañeta, which lies above it at an elevation of 3,862 feet (1,177 metres). This pass is the traditional site of the Battle of Roncesvalles (August 15, 778), in which the Basques ambushed and totally wiped out the rear guard…

Roncesvalles: …known in relation to the Pass of Roncesvalles, or Puerto de Ibañeta, which lies above it at an elevation of 3,862 feet (1,177 metres). This pass is the traditional site of the Battle of Roncesvalles (August 15, 778), in which the Basques ambushed and totally wiped out the rear guard…

Roncesvalles: …known in relation to the Pass of Roncesvalles, or Puerto de Ibañeta, which lies above it at an elevation of 3,862 feet (1,177 metres). This pass is the traditional site of the Battle of Roncesvalles (August 15, 778), in which the Basques ambushed and totally wiped out the rear guard…

Carlos Ibáñez del Campo was a Chilean president from 1927 to 1931 and from 1952 to 1958. Although by preference Ibáñez was aligned with foreign reactionaries, he made many constructive domestic reforms. After a military career of 30 years, Ibáñez participated in a revolt in September 1924 against

Vicente Blasco Ibáñez was a Spanish writer and politician, who achieved world renown for his novels dealing with World War I, the most famous of which, Los cuatro jinetes del Apocalipsis (1916; The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse, 1918), was used as the basis for two U.S. films. He was associated

Bonny, town and Atlantic oil port situated in Rivers state, southern Nigeria. It lies along the Bonny River (an eastern distributary of the Niger River) 6 miles (10 km) upstream from the Bight of Biafra. A traditional trading centre (fish, salt, palm oil, and palm kernels) of the Ijo people, it was

Ibar River, river in the Balkans, rising in Kosovo in the Mokra Mountains and flowing eastward to Mitrovica (Albanian: Mitrovicë) and then northward to join the West (Zapadna) Morava River in Serbia. Its length is 171 miles (276 km), and it has a drainage area of 3,100 square miles (8,000 square

Bara, Malagasy people who live in south-central Madagascar and speak a dialect of Malagasy, a West Austronesian language. Traditionally the Bara lived in a great many independent groups based on lineage identity. Five main kinship groups exist, and formerly the Bara had two kingdoms, one of which

Ihara Saikaku was a poet and novelist, one of the most brilliant figures of the 17th-century revival of Japanese literature. He enchanted readers with racy accounts of the amorous and financial affairs of the merchant class and the demimonde. Saikaku first won fame for his amazing facility in

Ibaraki, ken (prefecture), east-central Honshu, Japan, facing the Pacific Ocean. Mito, on the Naka River in eastern Ibaraki, is the prefectural capital. Ibaraki is located in the northeastern Kantō Plain. It is bordered to the south by the Tone River and contains part of Suigo-Tsukuba

Juana de Ibarbourou was a Uruguayan poet, one of the most famous Latin American women poets. She was venerated for her lyrical celebration of love and nature. Ibarbourou spent her childhood in a small village surrounded by country things. She was largely self-educated. In 1914 she married and later

Ibarra, city, north-central Ecuador, situated in a valley of the Andes Mountains at an elevation of 7,300 feet (2,200 metres), within the Ecuadoran Lake District. It was founded in 1606 by the soldier Cristóbal Torre, a representative of Miguel de Ibarra, the president of the royal audiencia of

José María Velasco Ibarra was a lawyer and a major political figure in Ecuador from the 1930s to the ’70s, and was president of Ecuador five times. Velasco Ibarra was born into a wealthy family and educated in Quito and Paris. He held various public posts before being elected president as the

Dolores Ibárruri was a Spanish Communist leader, who earned a legendary reputation as an impassioned orator during the Spanish Civil War, coining the Republican battle cry, “No pasarán! ” (“They shall not pass!”). Born the eighth of 11 children of a Viscayan miner, Ibárruri was compelled by poverty

Dolores Ibárruri was a Spanish Communist leader, who earned a legendary reputation as an impassioned orator during the Spanish Civil War, coining the Republican battle cry, “No pasarán! ” (“They shall not pass!”). Born the eighth of 11 children of a Viscayan miner, Ibárruri was compelled by poverty

patristic literature: The schools of Edessa and Nisibis: …one of its leading instructors, Ibas (died 457), who worked energetically translating Theodore of Mopsuestia’s commentaries and disseminating his Christological views. His own stance on the now urgent Christological issue was akin to that of Theodoret of Cyrrhus—roughly midway between Nestorius’s dualism and the Alexandrian doctrine of one nature—and he…

Ibb, city, southwestern Yemen, lying in the Yemen Highlands on a spur of the rugged Mount Shamāḥī, at 6,725 feet (2,050 metres) above sea level. The city’s origins, according to Arab myth, date to biblical times. The area became important in the Middle Ages, when the Ṣulayḥid princess Sayyidah Arwā

history of Mesopotamia: The 3rd dynasty of Ur: Amar-Su’ena, Shu-Sin, and Ibbi-Sin, this dynasty lasted for a century (c. 2112–c. 2004). Ur-Nammu was at first “governor” of the city of Ur under Utu-hegal. How he became king is not known, but there may well be some parallels between his rise and the career of Ishbi-Erra of…

inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), chronic inflammation of the intestines that results in impaired absorption of nutrients. Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) encompasses two disorders: Crohn disease (regional ileitis) and ulcerative colitis. The onset of IBD typically occurs between ages 15 and 35,

International Bank for Economic Cooperation (IBEC), international bank instituted by an agreement signed by Bulgaria, Hungary, East Germany, Mongolia, Poland, Romania, Czechoslovakia, and the Soviet Union in October 1963 to facilitate economic cooperation among the member countries and to promote

African art: Ife and Yoruba: …distributed cult is of twins—ibeji—whose birth among the Yoruba is unusually frequent. Their effigies, made on the instructions of the oracle, are among the most numerous of all classes of African sculpture. Carved doors and house posts are found in shrines and palaces and in the houses of important…

Ibar River, river in the Balkans, rising in Kosovo in the Mokra Mountains and flowing eastward to Mitrovica (Albanian: Mitrovicë) and then northward to join the West (Zapadna) Morava River in Serbia. Its length is 171 miles (276 km), and it has a drainage area of 3,100 square miles (8,000 square

Isaac Albéniz: The most notable work is Iberia (1905–09), a collection of 12 virtuoso piano pieces, considered by many to be a profound evocation of the spirit of Spain, particularly of Andalusia. Also among his best works are the Suite española, containing the popular “Sevillana”; the Cantos de España, which includes “Córdoba”;…

Iberian Peninsula, peninsula in southwestern Europe, occupied by Spain and Portugal. Its name derives from its ancient inhabitants whom the Greeks called Iberians, probably for the Ebro (Iberus), the peninsula’s second longest river (after the Tagus). The Pyrenees mountain range forms an effective

history of Transcaucasia: Early history: …eastern Georgia (called Kartli or Iberia) in the north and Armenia in the south. The culture and ethnic character of both can be traced to the period of the breakup of the Hittite empire in the 12th century bc, and both were converted to Christianity early in the 4th century…

Iberia, Spanish airline created by law on June 7, 1940, and given rights to the air transport of persons and cargo within Spain. It took control of a privately owned company established in 1937, which in turn had revived the name of a company called Iberia, Compañía Aérea de Transportes, founded

Iberia, Spanish airline created by law on June 7, 1940, and given rights to the air transport of persons and cargo within Spain. It took control of a privately owned company established in 1937, which in turn had revived the name of a company called Iberia, Compañía Aérea de Transportes, founded

James Michener: …he did in Spain for Iberia: Spanish Travels and Reflections (1968). Michener wrote with journalistic skill, aiming to instruct. Although he was criticized for the abundance of detail and facts in his fiction, his books were extremely popular, offering the reader a carefully and elaborately created world. In his later…

Iberian, one of a prehistoric people of southern and eastern Spain who later gave their name to the whole peninsula. The waves of migrating Celtic peoples from the 8th to 6th century bc onward settled heavily in northern and central Spain, penetrated Portugal and Galicia, but left the indigenous

Celto-Iberian language: …the western part of the Iberian Peninsula. Celto-Iberian was written in the Iberic script (borrowed from speakers of the non-Indo-European Iberian language in eastern and southern Spain) and is known primarily from a small number of coin inscriptions and an even smaller number of inscriptions on stone. Leading scholars believe…

Spain: The Second Republic: …of an anarchist group, the Iberian Anarchist Federation (Federación Anarquista Ibérica; FAI). Violent strikes were frequent.

Berber languages: …member is the language called Iberian, after whose speakers the Iberian Peninsula is named. An old consonantal alphabet (tifinagh) has survived among the Tuareg. It relates to the early Libyan inscriptions and the Phoenician quasi-alphabet.

Kartvelian languages, family of languages including Georgian, Svan, Mingrelian, and Laz that are spoken south of the chief range of the Caucasus. A brief treatment of Kartvelian languages follows. For full treatment, see Caucasian languages. Of the Kartvelian language family, only Georgian, the