Iapetus
Iapetus, outermost of Saturn’s major regular moons, extraordinary because of its great contrast in surface brightness. It was discovered by the Italian-born French astronomer Gian Domenico Cassini in 1671 and named for one of the Titans of Greek mythology.
Iapetus has a radius of 718 km (446 miles) and orbits Saturn once every 79.3 Earth days at a distance of 3,561,300 km (2,212,900 miles). Its bulk density of 1.0 grams per cubic cm implies that it must be made mostly of ices. The closer moons of Saturn orbit within roughly one degree of Saturn’s equatorial plane, but, at Iapetus’s orbit and beyond, the gravitational influence of Saturn’s equatorial bulge becomes less important, permitting larger orbital inclinations. It has been suggested that Iapetus’s 15° average inclination is a relic of the tilt of the long-vanished gaseous disk from which Saturn’s major regular moons formed.
Tidal interactions with Saturn have synchronized the rotation of Iapetus with its orbital period. As a result, the moon always keeps the same face to Saturn and always leads with the same face in its orbital motion. Remarkably, the leading hemisphere is extremely dark, reflecting only a few percent of the sunlight falling on it, whereas the trailing hemisphere reflects as much as 60 percent of incident light. The reflectance at the poles is higher still. Iapetus displays the greatest variation in brightness of any object known in the solar system. Cassini himself wrote that, as Iapetus traveled in its orbit, he could observe it on one side of Saturn but not on the other, and he speculated correctly about the reason for this discrepancy.
Although the U.S. Voyager spacecraft flybys revealed impact craters only on Iapetus’s bright trailing side, subsequent higher-resolution Cassini spacecraft images show craters on the leading side as well. The surface material on the bright side is very nearly pure water ice, possibly mixed with other ices. The material coating the surface of the dark side, which has a reddish hue, appears to be an opaque layer of complex organic molecules mixed with iron-bearing minerals that have been altered by water. The reflectivity difference is caused by dark material—composed of particles that originated from a ring of dust thrown into space by impacts on the outer moon Phoebe—collecting on the leading hemisphere of Iapetus and absorbing more sunlight, which heats up this region enough to cause significant sublimation of water ice over geologic time. The water vapour condenses onto the colder trailing hemisphere and freezes. From the distance of the Voyager images, the change between the dark and bright material appears to be gradual, but Cassini images taken closer to Iapetus show that the two materials are well segregated down to scales of about 20 metres (65 feet). Radar measurements from Cassini and ground-based radio telescopes, coupled with the presence of small craters on the dark side that have punched through to bright material below, suggest that the dark material is thin, perhaps 30 cm (1 foot) to several metres. The absence of any large fresh craters on the dark material—the craters would be prominent from excavated bright material—suggests that the process forming the dark material is ongoing or at least recent.
The Cassini spacecraft imaged a remarkable narrow ridge encircling much of Iapetus’s equator. The ridge is about 20 km (13 miles) high and 20 km wide, and some areas are punctuated by a system of mountains about 10 km (6 miles) high. The heavily cratered surface of the ridge implies that it was formed very early in the history of Iapetus. Models suggest that it was formed by motions of a thin, active ice lithosphere when deeper layers of the moon were warm. On the other hand, the moon’s observed impact basins and other topography generally require a thicker lithosphere. Possibly most of the features were formed when temperatures within the moon were changing rapidly during its first few million years of existence.