anesthetic: General anesthetics: General anesthetics induce anesthesia throughout the body and can be administered either by inhalation or by direct injection into the bloodstream. The relationship between the amount of general anesthetic administered and the depression of the brain’s sensory responsiveness is arbitrarily, but usefully, divided…

Arab Feminist Union (AFU), transnational organization of feminist associations from Arab countries, which first convened in 1944. The Arab Feminist Union (AFU) focused on achieving social and political gender equality while promoting Arab nationalism. The Egyptian Feminist Union (EFU) and its

international payment and exchange: The Group of Ten: …was known as the “General Arrangements to Borrow.” The adhering countries were 10 in number: the United States, the United Kingdom, Canada, France, West Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, Belgium, Sweden, and Japan. They became known as the “Group of Ten.”

South Carolina: Constitutional framework: The General Assembly, South Carolina’s legislature, comprises two houses: the Senate and the House of Representatives. Originally, each county had one senator and at least one representative, but the U.S. Supreme Court declared such apportionment unconstitutional. In 1974 the House of Representatives was divided into 124…

Indiana: Constitutional framework: …gubernatorial influence on the legislature—the General Assembly—is often weak during the second half of an administration.

Colorado: Constitutional framework: …bicameral legislature known as the General Assembly, which meets annually. It comprises a Senate of 35 members elected to four-year terms and a House of Representatives of 65 members elected to two-year terms. By a rule adopted in 1977 to streamline the legislative process, members of the assembly may introduce…

United Nations General Assembly, one of the six principal organs of the United Nations (UN) and the only body in which every member of the organization is represented and allowed to vote. The first session of the assembly convened on Jan. 10, 1946, in London, with 51 countries represented. As of

intelligence: North Korea: …Korean Residents in Japan (Chosen Soren), that collects information and money from expatriate citizens. The Chosen Soren, whose name derives from the formal name of Korea when it was controlled by Japan, has been pivotal in helping North Korea to acquire advanced technology. Because Japan does not maintain formal…

General Association of Regular Baptist Churches, association of independent conservative Baptist churches in the United States, organized in 1932 after 22 Baptist churches withdrew from the Northern (later American) Baptist Convention. These churches withdrew because they felt that the Northern

average: A general average is one that is borne in common by the owners of all the property engaged in the venture.

insurance: General average clause: The general average clause in ocean marine insurance obligates the insurers of various interests to share the cost of losses incurred voluntarily to save the voyage from complete destruction. Such sacrifices must be made voluntarily, must be necessary, and must be successful.…

Baptist Union of Great Britain, largest Baptist group in the British Isles, organized in 1891 as a union of the Particular Baptist and New Connection General Baptist associations. These groups were historically related to the first English Baptists, who originated in the 17th century. The Baptist

map: International organizations: …and charting and maintains a General Bathymetric Chart of the World, which is revised periodically to include data furnished by the maritime nations participating in their programs and conferences. Other organizations that promote progress in the various aspects of mapping and charting are the International Association of Geodesy, the International…

law of war: Weapons: …sinking of the Argentine warship General Belgrano, therefore, was not contrary to international law despite its being attacked outside the Total Exclusion Zone that the British government had declared around the Falkland Islands.

Alexander Chalmers: …biographer best known for his General Biographical Dictionary (1812–17), a 32-volume revision of work first published in 11 volumes (1761).

Lewis Boss: …completed it in 1937 (General Catalogue of 33,342 Stars for the Epoch 1950, 5 vol.).

secondary education: The British system: …examinations that result in the General Certificate of Education. These examinations have two levels: General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE; formerly “ordinary”) and advanced. Entry to a university requires a prescribed combination of passes on the GCSE and advanced level in such subjects as English, foreign language, science, and mathematics.…

AlliedSignal: …supplying coal-tar chemicals and roofing; General Chemical Company (founded 1899), specializing in industrial acids; National Aniline & Chemical Company (founded 1917), producing dyes; Semet-Solvay Company (founded 1894), manufacturing coke and its by-products; and Solvay Process Company (founded 1881), producing alkalies and nitrogen materials. In the 1940s these companies were transformed…

scientific modeling: …model of note is the general circulation model, which is used for simulating human- and non-human-induced climate change. Modeling of geologic events, such as convection within Earth and theoretical movements of Earth’s plates, has advanced scientists’ knowledge of volcanoes and earthquakes and of the evolution of Earth’s surface. In ecology,…

Portugal: The 18th century: …1661 and set up the General Company for Wines of Alto Douro to control the port wine trade. Industries for the manufacture of hats (1759), cutlery (1764), and other articles were established with varying success.

Italy: Later economic trends: …from the employers’ association, the Confederation of Industries (Confindustria). This was reflected in a sharp fall in inflation to 12 percent in 1984 and down to 4.2 percent in 1986. However, a three-year contract signed in 1987 between Confindustria and trade unions representing all civil servants and some private industrial…

Italy: Domestic policies: …various Socialist-led unions formed a confederation of labour in 1906. Some unions depended heavily on public works schemes subsidized by government. Others, such as Federterra, relied on Giolitti’s reform legislation favouring cooperatives and on contracts provided by Socialist councils. All the major Socialist institutions became reliant on government willingness not…

General Confederation of Labour, French labour union federation. Formed in 1895, the CGT united in 1902 with the syndicalist-oriented Federation of Labour Exchanges (Fédération des Bourses du Travail). In its early years the CGT was racked by ideological divisions between socialist, syndicalist

General Confederation of Labour, major labour-union federation in Argentina. The CGT was formed in 1930. Its leadership was contested by socialist, anarchist, and syndicalist factions from 1935 until the early 1940s, when it came under the control of Juan Perón, an ambitious Cabinet minister. When

General Confederation of Labour–Workers’ Force, French labour-union federation that is most influential among white-collar civil servants and clerical workers. It was formed in 1948 after a split within the General Confederation of Labour (Confédération Générale du Travail, or CGT). In 1947 the

Adventist: Institutions: The General Conference, the church’s main governing body, has its headquarters in Silver Spring, Maryland, where it was moved in 1989 from Washington, D.C. The General Conference meets quadrennially. Local congregations in a particular area or country are associated in conferences, and each conference is in…

information system: Information systems controls: General controls apply to information system activities throughout an organization. The most important general controls are the measures that control access to computer systems and the information stored there or transmitted over telecommunications networks. General controls include administrative measures that restrict employees’ access to only…

canon law: The formative period in the East: , the ecumenical Council of Nicaea). Though these councils are known primarily for their consideration of doctrinal conflicts, they also ruled on practical matters (such as jurisdictional and institutional concerns), which were set down in canons. In the West there was less imperial interference, and the bishop…

General Council of Congregational Christian Churches, Protestant church in the United States, organized in 1931 by a merger of the National Council of the Congregational Churches and the General Convention of the Christian Church. It was merged with the Evangelical and Reformed Church into the

barrister: The General Council of the Bar, also called the Bar Council, is the representative body of barristers in England and Wales. It acts in matters of general concern to the profession and, through the independent Bar Standards Board, regulates the professional conduct of its members. A…

Andorra: Geography: …Andorra’s unicameral legislature, the 28-member General Council of the Valleys, were responsible for internal administration and functioned as both an informal legislature and a cabinet headed by a prime minister. The 1993 constitution, approved by Andorran voters in a referendum, changed this structure and transferred most of the powers of…

Sōhyō, trade-union federation that was the largest in Japan. Sōhyō was founded in 1950 as a democratic trade-union movement in opposition to the communist leadership of its predecessor organization. It rapidly became the most powerful labour organization in postwar Japan and formed close ties with

United States: The New England colonies: …in the colony to a General Court composed of only a small number of shareholders in the company. On arriving in Massachusetts, many disfranchised settlers immediately protested against this provision and caused the franchise to be widened to include all church members. These “freemen” were given the right to vote…

court-martial: A general court-martial can be convened only by the commander of a major military installation, by a general or flag officer, or by some higher military authority. A special court-martial can be convened by a regiment-grade or brigade-grade officer. Whereas a general court-martial can try any…

Dutch language: Standard Dutch (Standaardnederlands or Algemeen Nederlands) is used for public and official purposes, including instruction in schools and universities. A wide variety of local dialects are used in informal situations, such as among family, friends, and others from the same village (these exist in far…

surveillance capitalism: The EU’s General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) law went into effect in 2018, and the EU European Data Protection Board has issued various rulings limiting the data-harvesting practices of companies within the EU.

Madrid: Administration and social conditions: The resulting General Ordinance Plan (Plan General de Ordenación) attempted to establish a long-term, full-scale scheme for future directed growth, aiming not only to modernize the infrastructure of essential services but also to improve the quality of life in the city. Local administration is under the direction…

dentistry: Europe: …Kingdom is granted by the General Dental Council (GDC) to those holding (1) a degree or diploma in dentistry or dental surgery conferred in Great Britain or Northern Ireland, (2) a degree or diploma in dentistry or dental surgery granted elsewhere that has been recognized by the GDC, or (3)…

gibbet: …intended to act as a long-lasting deterrent, they were sturdily built, and preventive measures were put in place to discourage friends or family members of the executed from removing their bodies. Thus gibbets would often become local landmarks, with either the structures themselves (Gibbet Hill, Gallows Lane) or the name…

Lewis Milestone: Films of the 1930s: The General Died at Dawn was one of 1936’s best pictures, an entertaining thriller set in turbulent China, with Gary Cooper as a soldier of fortune who aids an uprising against a ruthless warlord (Akim Tamiroff, in an Oscar-nominated turn). Clifford Odets’s screenplay was sometimes…

Germany: The consolidation of Brandenburg-Prussia and Austria: …Elector, its capstone being the General Directory, set up in 1723. Tied to regional and local organs by a network of commissioners, this supreme body of state policy and administration directed industry, trade, finance, internal affairs, and military matters in all the state’s territories. Upper-level bureaucrats came entirely from the…

General Dynamics Corp., major American defense contractor. The company’s headquarters are in Falls Church, Va. The original company, the Electric Boat Company, was founded in 1899 and built the Holland, the first submarine purchased by the U.S. Navy, in 1900. Electric Boat continued to build

bomber: …two countries developed the medium-range F-111 (designated a fighter but actually a strategic bomber) and Tu-26 Backfire and the long-range B-1 and Tu-160 Blackjack, respectively. These planes were designed to slip under early-warning radar at low level and to approach military targets using terrain-following radars and inertial-guidance systems. They could…

education: Traditional movements: …essentialism was what was called humanistic, or liberal, education in its traditional form. Although many intellectuals argued the case, Robert M. Hutchins, president and then chancellor of the University of Chicago from 1929 to 1951, and Mortimer J. Adler, professor of the philosophy of law at the same institution, were…

United Kingdom: Political process: …easy because the timing of general elections is unpredictable.

General Electric Company (GE) is a multinational conglomerate headquartered in Boston, Massachusetts, that was incorporated in 1892 following a series of mergers between various companies owned and operated by Thomas Alva Edison and the Thomson-Houston Electric Company. For well over a century,

General Electric Company (GE) is a multinational conglomerate headquartered in Boston, Massachusetts, that was incorporated in 1892 following a series of mergers between various companies owned and operated by Thomas Alva Edison and the Thomson-Houston Electric Company. For well over a century,

chromatography: Gas chromatography: This is termed the general elution problem. A simple solution is to increase the column temperature during the course of the separation. The well-resolved, highly volatile solutes are removed from the column at the lower temperatures before the low-volatility solutes leave the origin at the column inlet. This technique…

Enrico Barone: …expanded on the concepts of general equilibrium previously formulated by French economist Léon Walras.

Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod, conservative Lutheran church in the United States, formed in 1892 as a federation of three conservative synods of German background and then known as the General Evangelical Lutheran Synod of Wisconsin, Minnesota, Michigan and Other States. The Wisconsin Synod

Charles E. Spearman: …psychologist who theorized that a general factor of intelligence, g, is present in varying degrees in different human abilities.

Histadrut, Israeli labour organization that includes workers in the cooperative and collective agricultural settlements as well as in most industries. Organized in 1920, Histadrut is the largest voluntary organization in Israel and the most important economic body in the state. Its activities

Iraq: Labour and taxation: …authorized labour organization is the General Federation of Trade Unions (GFTU), established in 1987, which is affiliated with the International Confederation of Arab Trade Unions and the World Federation of Trade Unions. Under the Baʿath government, workers in the private sector were allowed to join only local unions associated with…

Trades Union Congress: …two new separate bodies: the General Federation of Trade Unions, founded in 1899 as an insurance fund for strikes, and the Labour Representation Committee, founded in 1900 and in 1906 renamed the Labour Party. The latter sponsored candidates for Parliament until after 1918, when it became a national political party.

General Federation of Women’s Clubs International (GFWC), umbrella organization in the United States founded in 1890 to coordinate its members’ efforts at promoting volunteer community service. During its more than century-long existence, the federation has focused its activities on areas such as

General Federation of Women’s Clubs International (GFWC), umbrella organization in the United States founded in 1890 to coordinate its members’ efforts at promoting volunteer community service. During its more than century-long existence, the federation has focused its activities on areas such as

Syria: Labour and taxation: The General Federation of Workers was founded in 1938 and has grown tremendously in power and scope. Composed only of industrial employees, it is represented on industrial boards and is responsible for a wide range of social services. There is also a federation for artisans and…

history of film: Early growth of the film industry: …a week—the MPPC formed the General Film Company, which integrated the licensed distributors into a single corporate entity. Although it was clearly monopolistic in practice and intent, the MPPC helped to stabilize the American film industry during a period of unprecedented growth and change by standardizing exhibition practice, increasing the…

Tokelau: Government and society: Legislative power rests with the General Fono (assembly), whose members are elected every three years by universal adult suffrage and represent the entire territory. The General Fono holds several annual sessions that can take place on any one of the atolls. It handles budgets, exercises a limited rule-making power, and…

General Foods Corporation, former American manufacturer of packaged grocery and meat products. Since 1989, General Foods product lines have been sold by Kraft Foods Inc. The company was incorporated in 1922, having developed from the earlier Postum Cereal Co. Ltd., founded by C.W. Post (1854–1914)

chemical formula: A general formula is a type of empirical formula that represents the composition of any member of an entire class of compounds. Every member of the class of paraffin hydrocarbons is, for example, composed of hydrogen and carbon, the number of hydrogen atoms always being two…

Dayton Accords, peace agreement reached on Nov. 21, 1995, by the presidents of Bosnia, Croatia, and Serbia, ending the war in Bosnia and outlining a General Framework Agreement for Peace in Bosnia and Herzegovina. It preserved Bosnia as a single state made up of two parts, the Bosniak-Croat

B. Traven: …kommt aus dem Dschungel (1940; General from the Jungle).

ideal gas law, relation between the pressure P, volume V, and temperature T of a gas in the limit of low pressures and high temperatures, such that the molecules of the gas move almost independently of each other. In such a case, all gases obey an equation of state known as the ideal gas law: PV =

Social Democratic Party of Germany: History: …merger in 1875 of the General German Workers’ Union, led by Ferdinand Lassalle, and the Social Democratic Workers’ Party, headed by August Bebel and Wilhelm Liebknecht. In 1890 it adopted its current name, the Social Democratic Party of Germany. The party’s early history was characterized by frequent and intense internal…

Social Democratic Party of Germany: History: …merger in 1875 of the General German Workers’ Union, led by Ferdinand Lassalle, and the Social Democratic Workers’ Party, headed by August Bebel and Wilhelm Liebknecht. In 1890 it adopted its current name, the Social Democratic Party of Germany. The party’s early history was characterized by frequent and intense internal…

universal grammar, theory proposing that humans possess innate faculties related to the acquisition of language. The definition of universal grammar has evolved considerably since first it was postulated and, moreover, since the 1940s, when it became a specific object of modern linguistic research.

General Grant National Memorial, mausoleum of U.S. President Ulysses S. Grant in New York City, standing on a bluff overlooking the Hudson River. It was designed by John H. Duncan. The monument, 150 feet (46 m) high in gray granite, was erected at a cost of $600,000 raised by public contributions.

Frank M. Andrews: …his command (1935–39) of the General Headquarters Air Force, the first U.S. independent air striking force.

blue law: Peters’s General History of Connecticut (1781), which purported to list the stiff Sabbath regulations at New Haven, Connecticut; the work was printed on blue paper. A more probable derivation is based on an 18th-century usage of the word blue meaning “rigidly moral” in a disparaging sense.…

Jan Swammerdam: …entomological research (1667–73), he completed A General History of Insects, popularly recognized as a major work at the time, and the Bible of Nature, one of the finest collections of microscopical observations ever published. In these works he corrected the physiologist Marcello Malpighi’s conceptions of the insect brain and nervous…

Charles Burney: …spare from teaching to his General History of Music, published between 1776 and 1789 in four volumes. Among the many musicians with whom Burney consulted on his trips to the continent were Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart and his father, Johann Adolph Hasse, Christoph Willibald Gluck, Frederick II (the Great) (a renowned…

Latin American literature: Historians of the New World: …Historia general del Perú (General History of Peru).

Juan de Mariana: …was translated into English as The General History of Spain (1699). It is less a great history than a work of art, combining history, anecdote, and legend in a fluid and readable prose that makes it a work of sustained interest.

Sir John Hawkins: Hawkins’s General History of the Science and Practice of Music occupied him for 16 years. It was published in five volumes in 1776, a few weeks before Charles Burney’s celebrated General History of Music. Hawkins’s book continues to be invaluable as a mine of detailed information,…

American Broadcasting Company: Focus on television: …Life to Live (1968–2012) and General Hospital (1963– ).

hospital: The general hospital: General hospitals may be academic health facilities or community-based entities. They are general in the sense that they admit all types of medical and surgical cases, and they concentrate on patients with acute illnesses needing relatively short-term care. Community general hospitals vary in…

wage and salary: Human-capital theory: …introduced the important distinction between “general” human capital (which is valued by all potential employers) and “firm-specific” human capital (which involves skills and knowledge that have productive value in only one particular company). Formal education produces general human capital, while on-the-job training usually produces both types. To understand investments in…

Pierre-Joseph Proudhon: Early life and education: …révolution au XIXe siècle (1851; The General Idea of the Revolution in the Nineteenth Century, 1923). The latter—in its portrait of a federal world society with frontiers abolished, national states eliminated, and authority decentralized among communes or locality associations, and with free contracts replacing laws—presents perhaps more completely than any…

General Italian Confederation of Labour , Italy’s largest trade-union federation. It was organized in Rome in 1944 as a nationwide labour federation to replace the dissolved Fascist syndicates. Its founders, who included communists, social democrats, and Christian Democrats, intended it to be the

B. Traven: …kommt aus dem Dschungel (1940; General from the Jungle).

computer: Application software: …Systems Group started developing a General Ledger program, perhaps the first serious business software, which sold for $995. The company shipped its software in ziplock bags with a manual, a practice that became common in the industry. General Ledger began to familiarize business managers with microcomputers. Another important program was…

Suriname: Suriname since independence: …parties sought to persuade the General Liberation and Development Party (Algemene Bevrijdings- en Ontwikkelingspartij; ABOP), which had won eight seats in the election, to join them in coalition rule. In July the ABOP chose to enter a coalition government with the VHP. In his former capacities as police commissioner and…

lien: The general lien extends not only to the value of services rendered in regard to the specific property but also to all indebtedness on general account by the property owner to the creditor. Whether a creditor had a general or specific possessory lien came to be…

theatre: The influence of Appia and Craig: …lighting under three headings: a general or acting light, which gave diffused illumination; formative light, which cast shadows; and imitated lighting effects painted on the scenery. He saw the illusionist theatre as employing only the first and last of these types. Appia proposed replacing illusory scene painting with three-dimensional structures…

medical education: History of medical education: It established the General Medical Council, which thenceforth controlled admission to the medical register and thus had great powers over medical education and examinations. Further interest in medicine grew from these advances, which opened the way for the discoveries of Louis Pasteur, which showed the relation of microorganisms…

General Mills, Inc., leading American producer of packaged consumer foods, especially flour, breakfast cereals, snacks, prepared mixes, and similar products. It is also one of the largest food service manufacturers in the world. Headquarters are in Minneapolis, Minnesota. General Mills was

General Motors (GM), American corporation that was the world’s largest motor-vehicle manufacturer for much of the 20th and early 21st centuries. It operates manufacturing and assembly plants and distribution centres throughout the United States, Canada, and many other countries. The company’s major

John Jakob Raskob: …stimulated sales by establishing the General Motors Acceptance Corporation (GMAC), which allowed dealers to finance their inventory of cars and offer credit and long-term financing to their customers. Raskob’s influence in the company declined, however, after the recession crisis of 1920 and the appointment that year of du Pont as…

General Motors (GM), American corporation that was the world’s largest motor-vehicle manufacturer for much of the 20th and early 21st centuries. It operates manufacturing and assembly plants and distribution centres throughout the United States, Canada, and many other countries. The company’s major

General Motors (GM), American corporation that was the world’s largest motor-vehicle manufacturer for much of the 20th and early 21st centuries. It operates manufacturing and assembly plants and distribution centres throughout the United States, Canada, and many other countries. The company’s major

Eero Saarinen: Life: …immediate renown, was the vast General Motors Technical Center in Warren, Michigan. Here Saarinen arranged five major building complexes, each for a different research study, around a 22-acre (9-hectare) reflecting pool. Strips of planted forest rimmed the 320-acre (130-hectare) site. The precision and modular rhythm of the low buildings recall…

museum: General museums: General museums hold collections in more than one subject and are therefore sometimes known as multidisciplinary or interdisciplinary museums. Many were founded in the 18th, 19th, or early 20th century. Most originated in earlier private collections and reflected the encyclopaedic spirit of the…

Libya: Establishment of the General National Congress: …would be known as the General National Congress (GNC). The National Forces Alliance, a secular party led by Mahmoud Jibril, a former TNC official and interim prime minister, won the largest number of seats. On August 8 the TNC formally handed over power to the GNC.

revenue bond: Unlike general obligation bonds, which carry the full faith and credit of the issuing agency and are repaid through a variety of tax revenues, revenue bonds are payable from specified revenues only, usually the revenues from the facility for which the bond was originally issued.

John Guare: His one-act play The General of Hot Desire, first performed in 1998, is an unsympathetic adaptation of the Bible that takes as one of its starting points Shakespeare’s sonnet number 154, from which the title of the play is taken. Lake Hollywood (2000) chronicles the lives of dissatisfied…

Ismail Kadare: …i ushtrisë së vdekur (1963; The General of the Dead Army [film 1983]), his best-known novel, was his first to achieve an international audience. It tells the story of an Italian general on a grim mission to find and return to Italy the remains of his country’s soldiers who died…

war crime: Definition and conceptual development: …of war crimes was the Instructions for the Government of Armies of the United States in the Field—also known as the “Lieber Code” after its main author, Francis Lieber—which was issued by U.S. Pres. Abraham Lincoln during the American Civil War and distributed among Union military personnel in 1863. For…

Madrid: Administration and social conditions: The resulting General Ordinance Plan (Plan General de Ordenación) attempted to establish a long-term, full-scale scheme for future directed growth, aiming not only to modernize the infrastructure of essential services but also to improve the quality of life in the city. Local administration is under the direction…

Rights, responsibilities, and risks.Understanding the nuanced world of partnerships and how they work can be a bit overwhelming, even if you’re a sophisticated investor and business person. After all, that’s why you pay your attorney and accountant. Still, although you might rely on financial