gemstone, any of various minerals highly prized for beauty, durability, and rarity. A few noncrystalline materials of organic origin (e.g., pearl, red coral, and amber) also are classified as gemstones. Gemstones have attracted humankind since ancient times, and have long been used for jewelry. The

pancreatic cancer: Treatment: …the chemotherapeutic agent gemcitabine (Gemzar), an antimetabolite that inhibits the synthesis of genetic material in dividing cells, patient survival is improved, although only modestly. Several other targeted drugs such as cetuximab (Erbitux), a monoclonal antibody that binds to EGFR and thus prevents kinase activation and cell division, are being…

Generation Alpha, term used to describe the generation of people born (or who will be born) between 2010 and 2025. Some researchers, however, consider slightly different ranges. The term was introduced by Australian social researcher Mark McCrindle in a 2008 report on the subject. Generation Alpha

Generation X, a term typically used to describe the generation of Americans born between 1965 and 1980, although some sources use slightly different ranges. It has sometimes been called the “middle child” generation, as it follows the well-known baby boomer generation and precedes the millennial

millennial, term used to describe a person born between 1981 and 1996, though different sources can vary by a year or two. It was first used in the book Generations (1991) by William Strauss and Neil Howe, who felt it was an appropriate name for the first generation to reach adulthood in the new

Generation Z, term used to describe Americans born during the late 1990s and early 2000s. Some sources give the specific year range of 1997–2012, although the years spanned are sometimes contested or debated because generations and their zeitgeists are difficult to delineate. Generation Z follows

Jubba River, principal river of Somalia in northeastern Africa. Originating via its headwater streams in the Mendebo Mountains of southern Ethiopia, it flows about 545 miles (875 km) from Doolow on the Ethiopian frontier to the Indian Ocean just north of Kismaayo, one of Somalia’s three main ports.

Dag Solstad: …Prize; Genanse og verdighet (1994; Shyness and Dignity); Professor Andersens natt (1996; Professor Andersen’s Night); and 17. Roman (2009; “Novel 17”).

Hiroshima Peace Memorial, ruins of a building that was destroyed by an atomic bomb in Hiroshima, Japan, and that is preserved as a memorial to those killed and as a reminder. At 8:15 AM on August 6, 1945, the U.S. B-29 bomber Enola Gay dropped the world’s first atomic bomb used in war on the city

Osman II was an Ottoman sultan who came to the throne as an active and intelligent boy of 14 and who during his short rule (1618–22) understood the need for reform within the empire. Ambitious and courageous, Osman undertook a military campaign against Poland, which had interfered in the Ottoman

Genda Minoru was a Japanese naval officer and air strategist who was chosen by Admiral Yamamoto Isoroku to draft the plan for the surprise attack on Pearl Harbor (in Oahu Island, Hawaii, U.S.), which crippled the American Pacific Fleet and precipitated the entry of the United States into World War

Noh theatre: …varied in content, includes the gendai mono (“present-day play”), in which the story is contemporary and “realistic” rather than legendary and supernatural, and the kyōjo mono (“madwoman play”), in which the protagonist becomes insane through the loss of a lover or child; and the fifth type, the kiri or kichiku…

history of film: Japan: …of the feudal shogunate), or gendai-geki, films of contemporary life, set any time thereafter. Although, as a matter of geopolitical circumstance, there was hardly any export market for Japanese films prior to World War II, the domestic popularity of sound films enabled the Japanese motion-picture industry to become one of…

Pontifical Gendarmerie, former police force of Vatican City. The Pontifical, or Papal, Gendarmerie was created in the 19th century under the formal supervision of the pope. The gendarmes were responsible for maintaining the internal order and security of Vatican City. In the late 19th and early

France: Military and financial organization: …d’ordonnance, known collectively as the gendarmerie, consisted of noble volunteers. The infantry, however, was made up of non-nobles, and by the middle of the 16th century there were more than 30,000 infantrymen to a mere 5,000 noble horsemen. As this infantry force grew in number, its organization changed. After a…

Third Department: …functioned in conjunction with the Corps of Gendarmes (formed in 1836), a well-organized military force that operated throughout the empire, and with a network of anonymous spies and informers.

gender, in language, a phenomenon in which the words of a certain part of speech, usually nouns, require the agreement, or concord, through grammatical marking (or inflection), of various other words related to them in a sentence. In languages that exhibit gender, two or more classes of nouns

percussion instrument: Idiophones: …Java, and the frame metallophone gender, now usually supplied with tubular resonators, which has been known since the 12th century. Introduced to China by a Turkic people in the 7th century, the horizontal type of metallophone reached Korea in the 12th century and is still occasionally played there. In Japan…

gender-affirming surgery, medical procedure in which the physical sex characteristics of an individual are modified. Gender-affirming surgery typically is undertaken when an individual chooses to align their physical appearance with their gender identity, enabling the individual to achieve a

gender binary, system that classifies sex and gender into a pair of opposites, often imposed by culture, religion, or other societal pressures. Within the gender binary system, all of the human population fits into one of two genders: man or woman. Proponents of the system consider the gender

gender-affirming surgery, medical procedure in which the physical sex characteristics of an individual are modified. Gender-affirming surgery typically is undertaken when an individual chooses to align their physical appearance with their gender identity, enabling the individual to achieve a

gender continuum, in the study of human sexuality, the thesis that gender is not “binary,” or limited to the specific genders “man” and “woman” (or “boy” and “girl”), but continuous, forming a spectrum of differing degrees and combinations of the mental, emotional, behavioral, and biological traits

sex determination, the establishment of the sex of an organism, usually by the inheritance at the time of fertilization of certain genes commonly localized on a particular chromosome. This pattern affects the development of the organism by controlling cellular metabolism and stimulating the

androgyny: …in which characteristics of both sexes are clearly expressed in a single individual. In biology, androgyny refers to individuals with fully developed sexual organs of both sexes, also called hermaphrodites. Body build and other physical characteristics of these individuals are a blend of normal male and female features.

gender dysphoria (GD), formal diagnosis given by mental health professionals to people who experience distress because of a significant incongruence between the gender with which they personally identify and the gender with which they were born. The GD diagnosis appears in the Diagnostic and

gender equality, condition of parity regardless of an individual’s gender. Gender equality addresses the tendency to ascribe, in various settings across societies, different roles and status to individuals on the basis of gender. In this context, the term gender generally refers to an individual’s

gender equality, condition of parity regardless of an individual’s gender. Gender equality addresses the tendency to ascribe, in various settings across societies, different roles and status to individuals on the basis of gender. In this context, the term gender generally refers to an individual’s

drag queen: …premised on the belief in gender fluidity. Dragging is intended to make this fluidity visible through performance.

gender gap, Difference in opinions or attitudes between men and women concerning a variety of public and private issues, including political candidates, parties, or programs. Until the 1980s men and women in the U.S. exhibited similar voting habits. Since then, however, women have been more likely

gender identity, an individual’s self-conception as a man or woman or as a boy or girl or as some combination of man/boy and woman/girl or as someone fluctuating between man/boy and woman/girl or as someone outside those categories altogether. It is distinguished from actual biological sex—i.e.,

gender dysphoria (GD), formal diagnosis given by mental health professionals to people who experience distress because of a significant incongruence between the gender with which they personally identify and the gender with which they were born. The GD diagnosis appears in the Diagnostic and

In Malawi, the male-female ratio in schools, universities, and higher positions in public service and industry generally favours the male gender. In the past, parents assumed that the destiny of daughters was to get married, have children, and serve their husbands and society. Although such

Judith Butler: …most-overt examples of such “gender parody” involve cross-dressing, especially drag (see transvestism). According to Butler:

gender wage gap, in many industrialized countries, systemic differences between the average wages or salaries of men and those of women. One of the most important economic trends of the late 20th century was the dramatic increase in the number of women entering the paid labour force. As more women

Afro-Asiatic languages: The nominal system: …a feature known as “gender polarity.” For example, in the Cushitic language Burunge, kori ‘year’ is a masculine noun, but korara ‘years’ is feminine. Other languages use common gender in the plural (i.e., there is no gender distinction in the plural).

gender role, a culturally and socially determined set of expected behaviors, attitudes, and characteristics based on concepts of masculinity and femininity. A gender role should not be confused with gender identity, which refers to an individual’s internal sense of being masculine, feminine, on a

gender continuum, in the study of human sexuality, the thesis that gender is not “binary,” or limited to the specific genders “man” and “woman” (or “boy” and “girl”), but continuous, forming a spectrum of differing degrees and combinations of the mental, emotional, behavioral, and biological traits

Afro-Asiatic languages: The nominal system: …notable historical feature is “gender stability,” meaning that words for common things tend to share the same gender across the languages of the Afro-Asiatic phylum, no matter whether or not the particular words are cognate across the specific languages in question. For instance, the word for “blood” is always…

William Shakespeare: Feminist criticism and gender studies: Gender studies such as those of Bruce R. Smith and Valerie Traub also dealt importantly with issues of gender as a social construction and with changing social attitudes toward “deviant” sexual behaviour: cross-dressing, same-sex relationships, and bisexuality.

gender symbol, visual signifier of an individual’s self-conception as male or female, as some combination thereof, or as someone outside those categories altogether. Gender symbols are frequently used to represent and distinguish individuals based on their gender identity or biological sex. The

Judith Butler: In their best-known work, Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity (1990), and its sequel, Bodies That Matter: On the Discursive Limits of ‘Sex’ (1993), Butler built upon the familiar cultural-theoretic assumption that gender is socially constructed (the result of socialization, broadly conceived) rather than innate and that…

gender wage gap, in many industrialized countries, systemic differences between the average wages or salaries of men and those of women. One of the most important economic trends of the late 20th century was the dramatic increase in the number of women entering the paid labour force. As more women

gender-affirming surgery, medical procedure in which the physical sex characteristics of an individual are modified. Gender-affirming surgery typically is undertaken when an individual chooses to align their physical appearance with their gender identity, enabling the individual to achieve a

genderqueer, identity adopted by individuals who characterize themselves as neither female nor male, as both, or as somewhere in between. The term was coined in the 1990s. Although genderqueer individuals describe and express their identities differently and may or may not consider themselves to be

Genje carpet, floor covering handwoven in Azerbaijan in or near the city of Gäncä (also spelled Gendje or Gänjä; in the Soviet era it was named Kirovabad, and under Imperial Russia, Yelizavetpol). The carpets are characterized by simple, angular designs and saturated (intense) colours. Genje

Émile Augier: His best-known play, Le Gendre de Monsieur Poirier (1854; “Monsieur Poirier’s Son-in-Law”), written in collaboration with Jules Sandeau, advocated the fusion of the new prosperous middle class with the dispossessed nobility.

gene, unit of hereditary information that occupies a fixed position (locus) on a chromosome. Genes achieve their effects by directing the synthesis of proteins. In eukaryotes (such as animals, plants, and fungi), genes are contained within the cell nucleus. The mitochondria (in animals) and the

cancer: Gene amplification: Gene amplification is another type of chromosomal abnormality exhibited by some human tumours. It involves an increase in the number of copies of a proto-oncogene, an aberration that also can result in excessive production of the protein encoded by the proto-oncogene. Amplification of the…

Kew Gardens: In 1996 the seed bank endeavour grew to become the Millennium Seed Bank Project (later the Millennium Seed Bank Partnership) to mitigate the extinction of at-risk and useful plants through seed preservation. Kew’s Millennium Seed Bank is the largest wild plant seed bank in the world. By 2018…

cloning, the process of generating a genetically identical copy of a cell or an organism. Cloning happens often in nature—for example, when a cell replicates itself asexually without any genetic alteration or recombination. Prokaryotic organisms (organisms lacking a cell nucleus) such as bacteria

nucleic acid: General recombination: …of the other—a process called gene conversion.

radiation: Damage to chromosomes: …of genetic material is called gene deletion. A germ cell thus affected may be capable of taking part in the fertilization process, but the resulting zygote may be incapable of full development and may therefore die in an embryonic state.

recombinant DNA: In vitro mutagenesis: …of in vitro mutagenesis is gene disruption, or gene knockout. Here the resident functional gene is replaced by a completely nonfunctional copy. The advantage of this technique over random mutagenesis is that specific genes can be knocked out at will, leaving all other genes untouched by the mutagenic procedure.

gene doping, use of substances or techniques to manipulate cells or genes in order to improve athletic performance. Since the latter half of the 20th century, the manipulation of human genes has formed an important area of biomedical research, with much effort focused in particular on refining gene

gene editing, the ability to make highly specific changes in the DNA sequence of a living organism, essentially customizing its genetic makeup. Gene editing is performed using enzymes, particularly nucleases that have been engineered to target a specific DNA sequence, where they introduce cuts into

cell: Genetic expression through RNA: The process of genetic expression takes place over several stages, and at each stage is the potential for further differentiation of cell types.

gene flow, the introduction of genetic material (by interbreeding) from one population of a species to another, thereby changing the composition of the gene pool of the receiving population. The introduction of new alleles through gene flow increases variability within the population and makes

evolution: Processes of gene-frequency change: The allelic variations that make evolution possible are generated by the process of mutation, but new mutations change gene frequencies very slowly, because mutation rates are low. Assume that the gene allele A1 mutates to allele A2 at a rate m per…

George P. Smith: …foreign DNA fragments into phage gene III, which encoded a coat protein expressed on the phage virion surface. When taken up by a phage, fusion proteins generated via gene III were displayed on the virion surface. Phage display enabled purification through antibody recognition, whereby antibodies directed against the foreign amino…

recombinant DNA: In vitro mutagenesis: …of in vitro mutagenesis is gene disruption, or gene knockout. Here the resident functional gene is replaced by a completely nonfunctional copy. The advantage of this technique over random mutagenesis is that specific genes can be knocked out at will, leaving all other genes untouched by the mutagenic procedure.

Gene Krupa: …of a fictionalized Hollywood biography, The Gene Krupa Story (1959), which featured Sal Mineo as Krupa and Krupa’s own drumming on the sound track.

Omaha: The contemporary city: The Leahy Mall and the fountain were part of a massive modernization project of the downtown and the riverfront that began in the 1970s. Changes in the riverfront landscape since 2002 include the addition of the Qwest Center, a convention hall and arena; a river walk;…

gene flow, the introduction of genetic material (by interbreeding) from one population of a species to another, thereby changing the composition of the gene pool of the receiving population. The introduction of new alleles through gene flow increases variability within the population and makes

gene pool, sum of a population’s genetic material at a given time. The term typically is used in reference to a population made up of individuals of the same species and includes all genes and combinations of genes (sum of the alleles) in the population. The composition of a population’s gene pool

gene: Gene regulation: Experiments have shown that many of the genes within the cells of organisms are inactive much or even all of the time. Thus, at any time, in both eukaryotes and prokaryotes, it seems that a gene can be switched on or off. The…

gene: Gene regulation: …small protein molecule called a repressor. The repressor binds to the operator gene and prevents it from initiating the synthesis of the protein called for by the operon. The presence or absence of certain repressor molecules determines whether the operon is off or on. As mentioned, this model applies to…

heredity: Transcription: …in a process called intron splicing. Molecular complexes called spliceosomes, which are composed of proteins and RNA, have RNA sequences that are complementary to the junction between introns and adjacent coding regions called exons. The intron is twisted into a loop and excised, and the exons are linked together. The…

Mario R. Capecchi: …which helped give rise to gene targeting. He developed a technique using recombinant DNA technology whereby DNA could be injected into the nucleus of mammalian cells, greatly enhancing the effectiveness of gene transfer. He further refined his procedure, incorporating the work of Evans and Smithies into his research, and the…

gene therapy, introduction of a normal gene into an individual’s genome in order to repair a mutation that causes a genetic disease. When a normal gene is inserted into the nucleus of a mutant cell, the gene most likely will integrate into a chromosomal site different from the defective allele;

gene therapy, introduction of a normal gene into an individual’s genome in order to repair a mutation that causes a genetic disease. When a normal gene is inserted into the nucleus of a mutant cell, the gene most likely will integrate into a chromosomal site different from the defective allele;

Boxing champion Gene Tunney, who won the heavyweight title with his defeat of Jack Dempsey in 1926, was a highly intelligent and literate man, penning for the initial printing of Britannica’s new 14th Edition (1929–73) the encyclopedia’s coverage of American boxing. In fact, there is probably no

gene-for-gene coevolution, a specific form of reciprocal evolutionary change based on the idea that, if one member of a coevolving relationship has a gene that affects the relationship, the other member has a gene to counter this effect. These genes evolve reciprocally and provide the genetic basis

Hecataeus of Miletus: …Hecataeus’s two known works, the Genealogia (also known as Historiai or Heroologia), seems to have been a systematic account in four books of the traditions and mythology of the Greeks, but comparatively few fragments of it survive. More than 300 fragments (most of them place names), however, remain of the…

textual criticism: Recension: In the “genealogical” or “stemmatic” approach, the attempt to reconstruct an original text here relies on the witnesses themselves regarded as physical objects related to each other chronologically and genealogically; the text and the textual vehicle (the book itself) are treated as a single entity. On the basis of…

heraldry: Ireland: …Office became known as the Genealogical Office. A civil servant was then appointed as Chief Herald of Ireland. The office of Ulster King of Arms has now been united with that of Norroy King of Arms in the College of Arms in London. The Irish Herald undertakes the duties formerly…

genealogy, the study of family origins and history. Genealogists compile lists of ancestors, which they arrange in pedigree charts or other written forms. The word genealogy comes from two Greek words—one meaning “race” or “family” and the other “theory” or “science.” Thus is derived “to trace

genecentre, any of a number of areas on the Earth from which arose important crop plants and domestic animals. As few as four of these centres of origin have probably provided the great majority of the most useful plants and animals: (1) tropical southeastern Asia—rice, chickens; (2) temperate

genecentre, any of a number of areas on the Earth from which arose important crop plants and domestic animals. As few as four of these centres of origin have probably provided the great majority of the most useful plants and animals: (1) tropical southeastern Asia—rice, chickens; (2) temperate

Dame Adeline Genée was a dancer, choreographer, and teacher who was founder-president of the Royal Academy of Dancing. The daughter of a farmer, Anina Jensen was adopted at age eight by her uncle, Alexander Genée, director of a modest touring ballet company. Trained by her uncle and his wife,

Al-Junaynah, town in the Darfur region of western Sudan. It lies about 15 miles (24 km) east of the Chad border and about 220 miles (350 km) west of Al-Fāshir, with which it is linked by a road. Al-Junaynah is located at an elevation of about 2,800 feet (853 metres). It has a domestic airport and

South San Francisco: …the biotechnology industry, which includes Genentech (founded 1976). South San Francisco boasts an attractive residential section with a view of San Francisco Bay. The most visible city attraction is a large sign, constructed in 1923, that reads “South San Francisco The Industrial City,” located on Sign Hill. San Francisco International…

genus, biological classification ranking between family and species, consisting of structurally or phylogenetically related species or a single isolated species exhibiting unusual differentiation (monotypic genus). The genus name is the first word of a binomial scientific name (the species name is

Thomas Nuttall: …information for his principal work, The Genera of North American Plants (1818).

Carolus Linnaeus: Classification by natural characters of Carolus Linnaeus: …contained in Clifford’s collection; and Genera Plantarum (1737; “Genera of Plants”), which modified and updated definitions of plant genera first offered by Tournefort.

George Bentham: …of specimens for the work Genera Plantarum (3 vol., 1862–83). It was published in Latin and covered 200 “orders” (analogous to what are now known as families) of 7,569 genera, which included more than 97,200 species.

Stephan Endlicher: …botanical collections, he wrote the Genera Plantarum Secundum Ordines Naturales Disposita (1836–40; “Plant Genera Arranged According to a Natural Order”), a system of classification in which he treated 6,835 genera of plants (6,285 of vascular plants). He was appointed professor of botany at the University of Vienna in 1840. Having…

Antoine-Laurent de Jussieu: His Genera Plantarum Secundum Ordines Naturales Disposita, Juxta Methodum in Horto Regio Parisiensi Exaratam, Anno 1774 (1789; “Genera of Plants Arranged According to Their Natural Orders, Based on the Method Devised in the Royal Garden in Paris in the Year 1774”) extended his method of classification,…

Generation of 1898, in Spain, the novelists, poets, essayists, and thinkers active at the time of the Spanish-American War (1898), who reinvigorated Spanish letters and restored Spain to a position of intellectual and literary prominence that it had not held for centuries. The shock of Spain’s

Generation of 1898, in Spain, the novelists, poets, essayists, and thinkers active at the time of the Spanish-American War (1898), who reinvigorated Spanish letters and restored Spain to a position of intellectual and literary prominence that it had not held for centuries. The shock of Spain’s

general, title and rank of a senior army officer, usually one who commands units larger than a regiment or its equivalent or units consisting of more than one arm of the service. Frequently, however, a general is a staff officer who does not command troops but who plans their operations in the

government budget: Japan: …the budget system is the general account, which theoretically includes all revenue and expenditure directly applicable to the overall fiscal operation of the government. There is also a system of special accounts for the operation of government enterprises and other special aspects of government finance. Theoretically, each special account is…

Government Accountability Office (GAO), agency of the U.S. federal government that reports to Congress and bills itself as independent and nonpartisan. Founded in 1921 as the General Accounting Office, it was renamed the Government Accountability Office (GAO) in 2004. The name change was intended

motivation: Sleep processes and stress reactions: …a stressor is called the general adaptation syndrome and appears to have evolved primarily to deal with systemic stressors. As noted earlier, however, this same set of processes is also triggered by psychological stressors and is often inappropriate to the situation. For example, the stress of an important upcoming test…

business organization: Types of business associations: …essential feature, a system of management, varies greatly. In a simple form of business association the members who provide the assets are entitled to participate in the management unless otherwise agreed. In the more complex form of association, such as the company or corporation of the Anglo-American common-law countries, members…

China: Aviation: …out solely by the state-run General Administration of Civil Aviation of China (CAAC) from 1949 until the mid-1980s. In an effort to improve efficiency and service, regional airlines were then introduced in competition with the airlines operated by the CAAC. In the early 21st century the CAAC’s airline-operating responsibilities were…

Mexico: World War II, 1941–45: …in November 1941 signed a general agreement that resolved most of their outstanding quarrels. The old problem of U.S. agrarian claims was settled, a reciprocal-trade treaty was outlined, and the Mexican peso was stabilized and supported to maintain a constant dollar ratio. The United States agreed to continue silver purchases…

General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), set of multilateral trade agreements aimed at the abolition of quotas and the reduction of tariff duties among the contracting nations. When GATT was concluded by 23 countries at Geneva, in 1947 (to take effect on Jan. 1, 1948), it was considered an

English language: Phonology: …often popularly referred to as General American), are in the pronunciation of certain individual vowels and diphthongs. Inland Northern American vowels sometimes have semiconsonantal final glides (i.e., sounds resembling initial w, for example, or initial y). Aside from the final glides, that American accent shows four divergences from British English:…

GMB, one of the largest trade unions in Great Britain and one of the two giant general unions (the other being Unite). The National Union of General and Municipal Workers (NUGMW) was formed in 1924 by the merger of the National Union of Gas and General Workers, the National Amalgamated Union of

anesthetic: General anesthetics: General anesthetics induce anesthesia throughout the body and can be administered either by inhalation or by direct injection into the bloodstream. The relationship between the amount of general anesthetic administered and the depression of the brain’s sensory responsiveness is arbitrarily, but usefully, divided…