challenges to democracy, in contemporary political science and international relations, the problems and threats faced by democratic governments throughout the world in the 21st century. Contemporary democracy is faced with new and growing challenges. The stability of democratic governments has

French literature: The novel: …is now seen to be Robert Challes, whose Illustres françaises (1713; The Illustrious French Lovers), a collection of seven tales intertwined, commands attention for its serious realism and a disabused candour anticipating Stendhal. As the bourgeoisie acquired a more prominent place in society and the focus switched to exploring the…

Borah Peak: …from Idaho, is located in Challis National Forest, 50 miles (80 km) northeast of Hailey. The peak lies in a tectonically active district, and in 1983 it was the epicentre of an earthquake that measured 7.2 on the Richter scale.

James Challis was a British clergyman and astronomer, famous in the history of astronomy for his failure to discover the planet Neptune. Elected a fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1826 and ordained in 1830, Challis became Plumian professor of astronomy and director of the Cambridge

pre-Columbian civilizations: Civil war on the eve of the Spanish conquest: …able generals Quisquis (Kizkiz) and Challcuchima (Challku-chima), marched south and won a series of decisive victories at Cajamarca, Bombon, and Ayacucho. As they moved southward, Huascar formed another army to defend Cuzco from the invaders. His forces were defeated, and he was captured a few miles from Cuzco in April…

Richard Challoner was a leader of English Roman Catholics whose revision of the Douai-Reims version of the Bible became the authorized edition for English Catholics. Challoner was educated at the English College at Douai, France, where he was ordained (1716) and appointed vice president and

Alexander Chalmers was a Scottish editor and biographer best known for his General Biographical Dictionary (1812–17), a 32-volume revision of work first published in 11 volumes (1761). Chalmers’ Glossary to Shakespeare (1797) was followed by The Works of the English Poets from Chaucer to Cowper

James Chalmers was a Scottish Congregationalist missionary who explored the southwest Pacific, where he became known as “the Livingstone of New Guinea.” Ordained in 1865, Chalmers was sent by the London Missionary Society to Rarotonga in 1866. Having facilitated the establishment of British rule in

Thomas Chalmers was a Presbyterian minister, theologian, author, and social reformer who was the first moderator of the Free Church of Scotland. Chalmers was ordained as minister of Kilmeny parish, Fife, in 1803. After reading William Wilberforce’s Practical View of the Prevailing Religious System

Mongla, port city, southwestern Bangladesh. Formerly located at Chalna, about 11 miles (18 km) upstream on the Pusur River, the port is the main seaport for the country’s western region. Mongla lies about 60 miles (100 km) north of the Bay of Bengal and is connected to the major inland river ports

Chalon-sur-Saône, town, Saône-et-Loire département, Bourgogne-Franche-Comté région, east-central France, south of Dijon. Chalon’s fine quays border the Saône River at its junction with the Canal du Centre. An important town of the Gallic tribe of Aedui, it was called Cabillonum by the Romans. In

Châlons-en-Champagne, town, capital of Marne département, Grand Est région, northeastern France. It lies along the right bank of the Marne River, in the heart of the rolling Champagne country. Small branches of the Marne River flow through the town. Chief town of a Gallic tribe, the Catalauni, it

Châlons-en-Champagne, town, capital of Marne département, Grand Est région, northeastern France. It lies along the right bank of the Marne River, in the heart of the rolling Champagne country. Small branches of the Marne River flow through the town. Chief town of a Gallic tribe, the Catalauni, it

Stone Age: Egypt: …triangular section known as the Chalossian type. These are associated with early flake implements. In the 15-metre (49-foot) terrace, developed Acheulean has been recorded, while the nine-metre (29.5-foot) terrace yields large flakes and cores of Levalloisian type. In the low terrace, which occurs at a height of three metres (10…

Louis-René de Caradeuc de La Chalotais was a French magistrate who led the Breton Parlement (high court of justice) in a protracted legal battle against the authority of the government of King Louis XV. The struggle resulted in the purging and suspensions (1771–74) of the Parlements. La Chalotais

Los Glaciares National Park: Mount Fitz Roy (11,073 feet [3,375 meters]) is the highest point in the park. Wildlife includes guanacos, chinchillas, pudu and guemal (two species of small deer), condors, and rheas. The park was designated a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1981.

Madhubala: …broken down in the comedy Chalti Ka Naam Gaadi (1958). She was also remembered for her songs in the thriller Howrah Bridge (1958).

Bengali language: Varieties: …or genteel speech) and the Chaltibhasa (current or colloquial speech). The former was largely shaped by the language of early Bengali poetical works. In the 19th century it became standardized as the literary language and also as the appropriate vehicle for business and personal exchanges. Although it was at times…

Chalukya dynasty, either of two ancient Indian dynasties. The Western Chalukyas ruled as emperors in the Deccan (i.e., peninsular India) from 543 to 757 ce and again from about 975 to about 1189. The Eastern Chalukyas ruled in Vengi (in eastern Andhra Pradesh state) from about 624 to about 1070.

chalumeau, single-reed wind instrument, forerunner of the clarinet. Chalumeau referred to various folk reed pipes and bagpipes, especially reed pipes of cylindrical bore sounded by a single reed, which was either tied on or cut in the pipe wall. Soon after this type of chalumeau became fashionable

Saudi Arabia: Daily life and social customs: …of slacks known as a sirwāl. In public women are expected to be fully veiled, and a long black cloak known as an ʿabāyah is worn. A veil called a hijab covers the head, and another known as a niqāb covers the face. Among Bedouin, women’s clothing is often quite…

Saudi Arabia: Daily life and social customs: …of slacks known as a sirwāl. In public women are expected to be fully veiled, and a long black cloak known as an ʿabāyah is worn. A veil called a hijab covers the head, and another known as a niqāb covers the face. Among Bedouin, women’s clothing is often quite…

siderite, iron carbonate (FeCO3), a widespread mineral that is an ore of iron. The mineral commonly occurs in thin beds with shales, clay, or coal seams (as sedimentary deposits) and in hydrothermal metallic veins (as gangue, or waste rock). Manganese (Mn), magnesium (Mg), and calcium generally

khan, historically, the ruler or monarch of a Mongol tribe (ulus). At the time of Genghis Khan (early 13th century) a distinction was made between the title of khan and that of khākān, which was the title Genghis assumed as Great Khan, or supreme ruler of the Mongols. The term khan was subsequently

Central Asian arts: Tibetan music: …festival time, when the great ’cham (dance) dramas, which may last several days, are performed for the public’s entertainment and edification. These plays, which generally show the triumph of Buddhism over Bon, the earlier shamanistic religion of Tibet, may involve hundreds of musicians in the guise of masked dancers with…

Eliza Orzeszkowa: …superstition of poor farmers, and Cham (1888; “The Boor”), the tragic story of a humble fisherman’s love for a neurotic and sophisticated city girl. Considered Orzeszkowa’s masterpiece, Nad Niemnen (1888; “On the Banks of the Niemen,” filmed 1987) depicts Polish society in Lithuania. Bene nati (1892; “Wellborn”) describes the impoverished…

Indic writing systems: The ancient Cham inscriptions of the Austronesian (Malayo-Polynesian) speakers who formerly inhabited southern Vietnam are also written in a script of South Indic origin.

Austronesian languages: Pre-16th century: The earliest dated inscription in Cham, the language of the Indianized kingdom of Champa in central Vietnam, bears a date of 829 ce, although some undated inscriptions may be older. An Old Malay stone inscription from central Java is dated to 832 ce and attests to the high prestige of…

Cambodia: Ethnic groups: …early 21st century was the Cham-Malay group. Known in Cambodia as Khmer Islam or Western Cham, the Cham-Malay group also maintained a high degree of ethnic homogeneity and was discriminated against under the regime of Democratic Kampuchea. Receiving only slightly better treatment than the Khmer Islam during that period were…

fox: Classification: chama (Cape fox, South African silver fox, or chama) Long-eared fox inhabiting dry areas of Southern Africa, particularly in the Kalahari desert region; weight 4 kg, body length usually less than 60 cm; coat gray. V. corsac (corsac, or steppe, fox) Small and social steppe-dwelling fox

Tanzania: Tanzania under Nyerere: …ASP under the title of Revolutionary Party (Chama cha Mapinduzi; CCM) early in 1977 was a hopeful sign but was followed by demands for greater autonomy for Zanzibar. This trend was checked for a short while when Ali Hassan Mwinyi succeeded Jumbe in 1984 and became president of the joint…

wrentit, (species Chamaea fasciata), bird of the Pacific coast of North America belonging to family Timaliidae. A fluffy brown bird about 16 cm (6.5 inches) long with a long tail, the wrentit calls harshly and sings loudly in thick brush, where pairs forage for fruit and

false cypress, (genus Chamaecyparis), any of some seven or eight species of ornamental and timber evergreen conifers (family Cupressaceae) native to North America and eastern Asia. The trees differ from the true cypresses in having smaller, rounded cones with fewer seeds. A young tree is pyramidal

false cypress: The wood of the Formosan cypress (C. formosensis), a tree more than 58 metres (190 feet) tall, is used locally for construction; it is not fragrant like the wood of other cypresses.

false cypress: …species of false cypress, the Lawson cypress, Port Orford cedar, or ginger pine (C. lawsoniana), may be more than 60 metres (200 feet) tall and 6 metres (about 20 feet) in diameter. It is a very hardy tree; over 200 forms are cultivated as ornamentals in North America and Great…

false cypress: The Nootka cypress, yellow cypress, or Alaska cedar (C. nootkatensis), also called yellow cedar, canoe cedar, Sitka cypress, and Alaska cypress, is a valuable timber tree of northwestern North America. Its pale yellow hard wood is used for boats, furniture, and paneling. Some varieties are cultivated…

false cypress: The hinoki cypress (C. obtusa), a bright-green tree 25 to 35 metres (80 to 115 feet) high, with reddish brown bark, is one of Japan’s most valuable timber trees. Its wood is used for construction, furniture, and interior work. Many varieties are cultivated for decoration and…

false cypress: The Sarawa cypress (C. pisifera) of Japan, 27 to 36 metres (90 to 120 feet) tall, has been in cultivation for centuries. It has sharp-pointed leaves, small cones, and fragrant white wood used for boxes and doors. Many horticultural varieties have been developed, most of which…

false cypress: The white cypress (C. thyoides) of North America, 21 to 27 metres (70 to 90 feet) tall, an economically important timber tree, also has many cultivated varieties. Its reddish brown fragrant wood is used for mine timbers, fence posts, and other supporting structures.

leatherleaf, (Chamaedaphne calyculata), evergreen shrub of the heath family (Ericaceae). The name is also sometimes applied to a stiff-leaved fern. C. calyculata occurs in Arctic regions and in North America as far south as Georgia. It forms large beds at the edges of swamps and boggy meadows. The

palm: Characteristic morphological features: …of regular branching (in Allagoptera, Chamaedorea, Hyphaene, Nannorrhops, Nypa, Vonitra) appear to involve equal or subequal division at the apex that results in a forking habit. The two newly formed branches may continue equally, or one may be overtopped by the other (Nannorrhops). When thickening occurs, as in the royal…

Chamaeleon, constellation in the southern sky at about 11 hours right ascension and 80° south in declination. Its brightest star is Alpha Chamaeleontis, with a magnitude of 4. This constellation was invented by Pieter Dircksz Keyser, a navigator who joined the first Dutch expedition to the East

chameleon, (family Chamaeleonidae), any of a group of primarily arboreal (tree-dwelling) Old World lizards best known for their ability to change body colour. Other characteristics of chameleons include zygodactylous feet (with toes fused into opposed bundles of two and three), acrodont dentition

chamomile: …English, or Roman, chamomile (Chamaemelum nobile) or German chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla). Several species are cultivated as garden ornamentals, especially golden marguerite, or yellow chamomile (Cota tinctoria).

rust fly: The carrot rust fly (Psila rosae; also known as Chamaepsila rosae) often damages carrots, celery, and related plants.

palm: Distribution: …genera transcending continental bounds are Chamaerops in Europe and Africa, Elaeis (oil palm) and Raphia (raffia palm, or jupati) in Africa and America, and Borassus (palmyra palm), Calamus (rattan palm), Hyphaene (doum palm), and Phoenix (date palm) in Africa and Asia. Numbers of

palm: Distribution: The northernmost palm is the European fan palm (Chamaerops humilis), which grows about the Mediterranean in Europe and North Africa; the southernmost is the nikau palm (Rhopalostylis sapida), of New Zealand and the Chatham Islands. Although there are species with extensive ranges, especially in America, most are restricted in range,…

Chamar, widespread caste in northern India whose hereditary occupation is tanning leather; the name is derived from the Sanskrit word charmakara (“skin worker”). The Chamars are divided into more than 150 subcastes, all of which are characterized by well-organized panchayats (governing councils).

Chamba, town, northwestern Himachal Pradesh state, northwestern India. The town lies on the Ravi River between two mountain ridges. The independent princely state of Chamba was founded in the 6th century ce and fell under Kashmir, Mughal, and Sikh rule before becoming part of British India in 1846.

Chambal River, river, northern India. The Chambal is the chief tributary of the Yamuna River and rises in the Vindhya Range just south of Mhow, western Madhya Pradesh state. From its source it flows north into southeastern Rajasthan state. Turning northeast, it flows past Kota and along the

Chambal River: The Chambal’s lower course is lined by a 10-mile (16-km) belt of badland gullies resulting from accelerated soil erosion and is the site of a major project in soil conservation.

cardiovascular disease: Abnormalities of individual heart chambers: Abnormalities of the heart chambers may be serious and even life-threatening. In hypoplastic left heart syndrome, the left-sided heart chambers, including the aorta, are underdeveloped. Infants born with this condition rarely survive more than two or three days. In other cases, only one chamber…

Alban Berg: His Chamber Concerto for violin, piano, and 13 wind instruments was written in 1925, in honour of Schoenberg’s 50th birthday.

Benny Goodman: Working with others: …the small group, or “chamber jazz” ensemble, Goodman made perhaps his most lasting contribution to jazz history. In 2024 the U.S. Library of Congress added a 1939 recording of “Rose Room,” by the Benny Goodman Sextet with Charlie Christian to the National Recording Registry, a list of audio recordings…

chamber music, music composed for small ensembles of instrumentalists. In its original sense, chamber music referred to music composed for the home, as opposed to that written for the theatre or church. Since the “home”—whether it be drawing room, reception hall, or palace chamber—may be assumed to

James Joyce: Legacy of James Joyce: Joyce’s other works—some verse (Chamber Music, 1907; Pomes Penyeach, 1927; Collected Poems, 1936) and a play, Exiles (1918)—though competently written, added little to his international stature.

Esperanza Spalding: In 2010 Spalding released Chamber Music Society, on which she combined jazz, folk, and world music components with classical chamber music traditions. The album notably featured a guest appearance by famed Brazilian singer and guitarist Milton Nascimento. Early the following year Spalding was honoured with the Grammy Award for…

chamber of commerce: National chambers of commerce.: The Chamber of Commerce of the United States, “a national federation working for good citizenship, good government and good business,” was founded in 1912. In the late 20th century its membership comprised more than 40,000 business members and more than 4,000 organization members including trade…

France: Louis XVIII, 1815–24: When a new Chamber of Deputies was elected in August 1815, the ultras scored a sweeping victory; the surprised king, who had feared a surge of antimonarchical sentiment, greeted the legislature as la chambre introuvable (“the incomparable chamber”). But the political honeymoon was short-lived. Louis was shrewd enough,…

rederijkerskamer, (Dutch: “chamber of rhetoric”), medieval Dutch dramatic society. Modelled after contemporary French dramatic societies (puys), such chambers spread rapidly across the French border into Flanders and Holland in the 15th century. At first they were organized democratically; later

cardiovascular disease: Abnormalities of individual heart chambers: Abnormalities of the heart chambers may be serious and even life-threatening. In hypoplastic left heart syndrome, the left-sided heart chambers, including the aorta, are underdeveloped. Infants born with this condition rarely survive more than two or three days. In other cases, only one chamber…

positive organ: …organ developed into the 18th-century chamber organ.

chamber process, method of producing sulfuric acid by oxidizing sulfur dioxide with moist air, using gaseous nitrogen oxides as catalysts, the reaction taking place primarily in a series of large, boxlike chambers of sheet lead. The lead-chamber process has been largely supplanted in modern

sonata da camera, a type of solo or trio sonata intended for secular performance; the designation is usually found in the late 17th century, especially in the works of Arcangelo Corelli. In that model, an opening prelude is followed by a succession of dance movements. Compare sonata da

Arnold Schoenberg: First major works: …similar form in the more-concise Chamber Symphony in E Major (1906), a work novel in its choice of instrumental ensemble. Turning away from the “monster” post-Romantic orchestra, Schoenberg wrote for a chamberlike group of 15 instruments.

John Grisham: …success with such titles as The Chamber (1994; film 1996), The Rainmaker (1995; film 1997), The Runaway Jury (1996; film 2003), and The Testament (1999).

John Grisham: …titles as The Chamber (1994; film 1996), The Rainmaker (1995; film 1997), The Runaway Jury (1996; film 2003), and The Testament (1999).

circulatory system: Hearts: Chambered hearts with valves and relatively thick muscular walls are less commonly found in invertebrates but do occur in some mollusks, especially cephalopods (octopus and squid). Blood from the gills enters one to four auricles (depending on the species) and is passed back to the…

The Chambered Nautilus, poem by Oliver Wendell Holmes, first published in the February 1858 issue of The Atlantic Monthly in his “Breakfast-Table” column. Written in five seven-line stanzas, the poem later appeared in collections of poems by Holmes. The poem takes as its central metaphor the sea

France: The monarchy of France: He or the chamberlain kept lists of fiscal tenants and their obligations on the lord-king’s estates and in towns for use in verifying the service of provosts who collected the rents and profits of justice. But this service was hardly less exploitative than that of the household officers;…

cardinal camerlengo, in Roman Catholicism, one of the cardinals and key prelates of the Vatican who is appointed by the pope and is tasked with a specific series of functions in the crucial time of transition from one pope to his successor, including verifying the vacating pope’s death. The role of

Lord Chamberlain’s Men, a London-based theatrical company with which William Shakespeare was intimately connected for most of his professional career as a dramatist. It was the most important company of players in Elizabethan and Jacobean England. The troupe’s early history is somewhat complicated.

South American Indian languages: Classification of the South American Indian languages: In 1913 Alexander Chamberlain, an anthropologist, published a new classification in the United States, which remained standard for several years, with no discussion as to its basis. The classification (1924) of the French anthropologist and ethnologist Paul Rivet, which was supported by his numerous previous detailed studies…

Neville Chamberlain was the prime minister of the United Kingdom from May 28, 1937, to May 10, 1940, whose name is identified with the policy of “appeasement” toward Adolf Hitler’s Germany in the period immediately preceding World War II. The son of the statesman Joseph Chamberlain and younger half

Charles Joseph Chamberlain was a U.S. botanist whose research into the morphology and life cycles of the cycads, a primitive gymnosperm family possessing structural features found in both ferns and conifers, enabled him to postulate a course of evolutionary development for the spermatophyte (seed

Houston Stewart Chamberlain was a British-born Germanophile political philosopher, whose advocacy of the racial and cultural superiority of the so-called Aryan element in European culture influenced pan-German and German nationalist thought, particularly Adolf Hitler’s National Socialist movement.

John Chamberlain was an American sculptor, painter, printmaker, and filmmaker whose Abstract Expressionist works were characterized by an emotional approach to concept and execution. Chamberlain studied at the Art Institute of Chicago (1951–52), where he began working in metals, and at Black

John Chamberlain was an American sculptor, painter, printmaker, and filmmaker whose Abstract Expressionist works were characterized by an emotional approach to concept and execution. Chamberlain studied at the Art Institute of Chicago (1951–52), where he began working in metals, and at Black

Joseph Chamberlain was a British businessman, social reformer, radical politician, and ardent imperialist. At the local, national, or imperial level, he was a constructive radical, caring more for practical success than party loyalty or ideological commitment. The ideas with which he is most

Neville Chamberlain was the prime minister of the United Kingdom from May 28, 1937, to May 10, 1940, whose name is identified with the policy of “appeasement” toward Adolf Hitler’s Germany in the period immediately preceding World War II. The son of the statesman Joseph Chamberlain and younger half

Owen Chamberlain was an American physicist, who shared the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1959 with Emilio Segrè for their discovery of the antiproton. This previously postulated subatomic particle was the second antiparticle to be discovered and led directly to the discovery of many additional

pottery: Porcelain: …Worcester a factory established by Robert Chamberlain in 1786 produced porcelain decorated in a debased Japanese style. Because of their gaudy colour—iron red and underglaze blue coupled with lavish gilding—some Japanese patterns are called thunder-and-lightning patterns. Similar Japanese patterns were being employed at Derby and at an older Worcester factory,…

Sir Austen Chamberlain was a British foreign secretary from 1924 to 1929, who helped bring about the Locarno Pact (1925), a group of treaties intended to secure peace in western Europe by eliminating the possibility of border disputes involving Germany. The pact gained for Chamberlain a share (with

Sir Austen Chamberlain was a British foreign secretary from 1924 to 1929, who helped bring about the Locarno Pact (1925), a group of treaties intended to secure peace in western Europe by eliminating the possibility of border disputes involving Germany. The pact gained for Chamberlain a share (with

Wilt Chamberlain was a professional basketball player, considered to be one of the greatest offensive players in the history of the game. More than 7 feet (2.1 metres) tall, Chamberlain was an outstanding centre. During his 1961–62 season he became the first player to score more than 4,000 points

Wilt Chamberlain was a professional basketball player, considered to be one of the greatest offensive players in the history of the game. More than 7 feet (2.1 metres) tall, Chamberlain was an outstanding centre. During his 1961–62 season he became the first player to score more than 4,000 points

Canadian literature: The Quiet Revolution: Nationalism adopted revolutionary language in Chamberland’s Terre Québec (1964), and personal rebellion triumphed in the avant-garde magazines La Barre du jour (founded 1965) and Les Herbes rouges (founded 1968). A preoccupation with freedom of expression (la parole) revealed itself in titles such as Giguère’s L’Âge de la parole (1965; “The…

Hugh Chamberlen, the Elder was a British male midwife, prominent member of a family of medical men remembered for the parts they played in the introduction of the obstetrical forceps. He was the grandnephew of Peter Chamberlen the Elder, inventor of the forceps, and was its chief exploiter. A

Peter Chamberlen, the Elder was a surgeon, a French Huguenot whose father, William, emigrated with his family to England in 1569. A celebrated accoucheur (“obstetrician”), he aided the wives of James I and Charles I in childbirth. Chamberlen is credited with the invention (c. 1630) of the

Giuseppe Mario Bellanca: …the premier flying circus pilot Clarence D. Chamberlin commissioned a plane from him and remained his friend, getting him a job at the Wright Aircraft Corporation (1924–26). In 1927 Chamberlin flew a Bellanca plane on the first transatlantic flight with a passenger to set a new long-distance record, from New…

Edward Hastings Chamberlin was an American economist known for his theories on industrial monopolies and competition. Chamberlin studied at the University of Iowa, where he was influenced by economist Frank H. Knight. He pursued graduate work at the University of Michigan and in 1927 obtained his

Smashing Pumpkins: …South Haven, Michigan), and drummer Jimmy Chamberlin (in full James Joseph Chamberlin; b. June 10, 1964, Joliet, Illinois).

Smashing Pumpkins: …South Haven, Michigan), and drummer Jimmy Chamberlin (in full James Joseph Chamberlin; b. June 10, 1964, Joliet, Illinois).

Thomas Chrowder Chamberlin was a U.S. geologist and educator who proposed the planetesimal hypothesis, which held that a star once passed near the Sun, pulling away from it matter that later condensed and formed the planets. In 1873 Chamberlin became assistant state geologist with the newly formed

chambers, in law, the private offices of a judge or a judicial officer where he hears motions, signs papers, and deals with other official matters when not in a session of court. The custom can be traced to 17th-century England, although it received no statutory sanction until the early 18th

cardiovascular disease: Abnormalities of individual heart chambers: Abnormalities of the heart chambers may be serious and even life-threatening. In hypoplastic left heart syndrome, the left-sided heart chambers, including the aorta, are underdeveloped. Infants born with this condition rarely survive more than two or three days. In other cases, only one chamber…

confession: Confession in contemporary U.S. law: In Chambers v. Florida (1940), the court held that the use of mental torture, accompanied by threats of violence, was enough to justify the suppression of a confession. In Ashcraft v. Tennessee (1944), a case in which a suspect confessed after 36 hours of continuous interrogation…

Chambers’s Encyclopaedia, British encyclopaedia published in Oxford, Eng., and named after its original publishers, Robert and William Chambers. The first edition in 10 volumes (1859–68) was based on a translation of the 10th edition of the German Konversations-Lexikon (now Brockhaus Enzyklopädie).

Dorothea Lambert Chambers was a British tennis player who was the leading female competitor in the period prior to World War I. Chambers won the Wimbledon singles seven times (1903–04, 1906, 1910–11, 1913–14), a record surpassed only by Helen Wills Moody in the 1930s. In the 1919 Wimbledon singles

Ephraim Chambers was a British encyclopaedist whose work formed a basis for the 18th-century French Encyclopaedists. The first edition of his Cyclopaedia; or, An Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences appeared in 1728, and its success led to Chambers’ election to the Royal Society. The