human digestive system: Anatomy: The cystic duct varies from 2 to 3 cm in length and terminates in the gallbladder, a saccular structure with a capacity of about 50 ml (about 1.5 fluid ounces). Throughout its length, the cystic duct is lined by a spiral mucosal elevation, called the valvula…

cystic fibrosis (CF), an inherited metabolic disorder, the chief symptom of which is the production of a thick, sticky mucus that clogs the respiratory tract and the gastrointestinal tract. Cystic fibrosis was not recognized as a separate disease until 1938 and was then classified as a childhood

cystic fibrosis (CF), an inherited metabolic disorder, the chief symptom of which is the production of a thick, sticky mucus that clogs the respiratory tract and the gastrointestinal tract. Cystic fibrosis was not recognized as a separate disease until 1938 and was then classified as a childhood

biological determinism: Multifaceted diseases: …the defective gene, known as CFTR, from both parents. More than 1,000 mutation sites have been identified in CFTR, and most have been related to different manifestations of the disease. However, individuals with the same genotype can show remarkably different phenotypes. Some will show early onset, others later onset; in…

tapeworm: …(encysts) and is called a cysticercus, or bladder worm. If the cysticercus is eaten alive in raw meat, it attaches itself to the host’s intestine and develops directly into a mature adult.

moss animal: Budding: …a zooid is called the cystid.

cystine, a crystalline, sulfur-containing amino acid that is formed from two molecules of the amino acid cysteine. Cystine can be converted to cysteine by reduction (in this case, the addition of hydrogen). Discovered in 1810, cystine was not recognized as a component of proteins until 1899, when

de Toni–Fanconi syndrome, a metabolic disorder affecting kidney transport, characterized by the failure of the kidney tubules to reabsorb water, phosphate, potassium, glucose, amino acids, and other substances. When the disorder is accompanied by cystinosis (q.v.), a deposition of cystine crystals,

cystinosis: … known as CTNS, which encodes cystinosin, a protein that normally transports cystine out of cellular organelles called lysosomes. When the gene is mutated, however, it produces a dysfunctional form of cystinosin. The extent to which the protein’s functional capacity is affected depends on the specific mutation involved; for example, severe…

cystinosis, inborn error of metabolism resulting in the deposition of crystals of the amino acid cystine in various body tissues. The tissues that typically are affected include the bone marrow, the liver, the cornea (where the crystals can be seen), and the kidney. There are three distinct forms

cystinuria, hereditary error of metabolism characterized by the excessive excretion into the urine of four amino acids: cystine, lysine, arginine, and ornithine. The main clinical problem of cystinuria is the possibility of cystine stone formation in the kidney; unlike lysine, arginine, and

Cystiphyllum, extinct genus of solitary corals found as fossils in Silurian and Devonian marine rocks (the Silurian Period preceded the Devonian Period and ended 416 million years ago). Cystiphyllum was one of the horn corals, so named for their hornlike shape. Like other corals, it had specialized

cystitis, acute or chronic inflammation of the urinary bladder. The bladder, the storage sac for urine, is lined with a mucous membrane and coated with a protective protein layer. As a result, it is usually highly resistant to infection or irritation. Occasionally, however, infections arise from

fungus: Annotated classification: Order Cystobasidiales Parasitic on plants; yeasts are non-teliospore-forming and produce auricularioid basidia and ballistospores (spores that are forcibly discharged); example genera include Cystobasidium, Occultifur, and Rhodotorula. Order Erythrobasidiales Some are pathogenic in humans and animals, others

fungus: Annotated classification: Class Cystobasidiomycetes Parasitic on plants; simple-septate basidiomycetes; contains 3 orders. Order Cystobasidiales Parasitic on plants; yeasts are non-teliospore-forming and produce auricularioid basidia and ballistospores (spores that are forcibly discharged); example genera include Cystobasidium, Occultifur, and

circulatory system: Blood: …secreted particles from hemocytes (cystocytes) trap other such cells to close the lesion until the surface of the skin regenerates.

fern: Annotated classification: Family Cystodinaceae Plants similar in appearance to a small tree fern; 1 genus with a single species (Cystodium sorbifolium); distributed in lowland rainforests in insular Southeast Asia. Family Lonchitidaceae Plants have a Neotropical distribution; 1 genus (Lonchitis) with about 30 species.

fungus: Annotated classification: Order Cystofilobasidiales Parasitic and pathogenic on plants (causing black canker of parsnips), may be saprotrophic; dolipores present; may lack parenthesomes; unicellular yeasts; example genera include Cystofilobasidium, Mrakia, and Itersonilia. Order Filobasidiales Pathogenic in humans, causing

renal system: Radiological and other imaging investigations: A micturating cystogram (voiding cystourethrogram [VCUG]) involves the injection of contrast substance into the bladder and is of importance in the investigation of urinary tract infection in childhood. It may show the reflux of urine from the bladder upward into the ureters or kidneys on micturition. Because…

cystoid, any member of an extinct class (Cystoidea) of primitive echinoderms (animals with a hard, calcareous external skeleton, related to the modern sea lily and starfish) that first appeared during the Middle Ordovician Epoch and persisted into the Late Devonian Epoch (the Ordovician Period

cystoid, any member of an extinct class (Cystoidea) of primitive echinoderms (animals with a hard, calcareous external skeleton, related to the modern sea lily and starfish) that first appeared during the Middle Ordovician Epoch and persisted into the Late Devonian Epoch (the Ordovician Period

Acanthaceae: … arranged in opposite pairs, with cystoliths (enlarged cells containing crystals of calcium carbonate) in streaks or protuberances in the vegetative parts. The bisexual flowers are frequently bilaterally symmetrical and are usually enclosed by leaflike bracts, often coloured and large. Sepals and petals number five or four each and are often…

hooded seal, (Cystophora cristata), large grayish seal with dark spots that is found in open waters of the North Atlantic and Arctic oceans. Hooded seals range from the Svalbard archipelago and the Barents Sea to the Gulf of St. Lawrence. Average-sized adult males measure about 2.6 metres (8.5

moss animal: Annotated classification: Order Cystoporata Zooid skeletons long and tubular, interconnected by pores and containing diaphragms (transverse partitions); cystopores (not pores but supporting structures between the zooid skeletons) present; Ordovician to Permian; about 80 genera. Order Trepostomata Colonies generally massive, composed of long tubular zooid skeletons with lamellate

fern: Annotated classification: Family Cystopteridaceae Plants are small or medium-sized; leaves are thin; sori are small, round, and naked; 3 genera (Acystopteris, Cystopteris, and Gymnocarpium). Family Desmophlebiaceae Plants have a thickened vein inside the edge of each compound leaflet; 1 genus (Desmophlebium) with 2 species.

bladder cancer: Diagnosis: …a flexible tube called a cystoscope. The cystoscope is also used to take biopsy samples from the bladder or urethra for laboratory analysis. An X-ray imaging procedure called intravenous pyelography, in which an injectable dye travels into the urinary tract and enhances X-ray image contrast, may also be used; abnormalities…

birth: Uterine prolapse: …bulging mass formed by a cystourethrocele (protrusion of the bladder and urethra into the vagina) or rectocele (protrusion of the rectum into the vagina), found during a pelvic examination, confirms the diagnosis. Uterine prolapse may be so severe that the uterus lies completely outside the vagina, and the vagina is…

antimetabolite: Cytarabine, which also has antiviral properties, interferes with dihydrofolate reductase, which is necessary for the synthesis of tetrahydrofolate and subsequently for the synthesis of the folic acid needed for DNA formation. Methotrexate, used most often in the treatment of acute leukemia, breast cancer, lung cancer,…

Cythera, island, southernmost and easternmost of the Ionian Islands, off the southern Peloponnesus (Pelopónnisos). It is an eparkhía (eparchy) of Attiki nomós (department), Greece. A continuation of the Taiyetos Range, the island has a mountainous interior, rising to 1,663 feet (507 metres). The

metabolism: Formation of lipids: …catalyzed by a specific enzyme, CMP is displaced from CDP-diglyceride by one of three compounds—serine, inositol, or glycerol 1-phosphate—to form CMP and, respectively, phosphatidylserine, phosphatidylinositol (in [85b]), or 3-phosphatidyl-glycerol 1′-phosphate (PGP; in [85c]). These reactions differ from those of polysaccharide biosynthesis ([79], [82]) in that phosphate is retained in the…

cytosine: Cytidine triphosphate (CTP), an ester of cytidine and triphosphoric acid, is the substance utilized in the cells to introduce cytidylic acid units into ribonucleic acids. CTP also reacts with nitrogen-containing alcohols to form coenzymes that participate in the formation of phospholipids.

Rafflesiaceae: The genera Bdallophytum and Cytinus were transferred to the family Cytinaceae (order Malvales), and the genera Apodanthes and Pilostyles were moved to the family Apodanthaceae (order Cucurbitales).

broom, (genus Cytisus), genus of several shrubs or small trees of the pea family (Fabaceae), native to temperate regions of Europe and western Asia. Some broom species are cultivated as ornamentals for their attractive flowers. English, or Scotch, broom (Cytisus scoparius) is a shrub with bright

broom: English, or Scotch, broom (Cytisus scoparius) is a shrub with bright yellow flowers and is often grown for erosion control in warm climates.

morphology: Chemical techniques: Histochemistry involves the differential staining of cells (i.e., using dyes that stain specific structural and molecular components) to reflect the chemical differences of the constituents. By choosing appropriate dyes, the histochemist is able, for example, to determine the acidity or alkalinity of the chemical compounds…

cytochrome, any of a group of hemoprotein cell components that, by readily undergoing reduction and oxidation (gain and loss of electrons) with the aid of enzymes, serve a vital function in the transfer of energy within cells. Hemoproteins are proteins linked to a nonprotein, iron-bearing

cytochrome: …letters and numbers, such as cytochrome a3, cytochrome c, and cytochrome B562. Cytochrome c is the most stable and abundant member of the class, and it has been the most thoroughly studied. See also cellular respiration.

transition metal: Biological functions of transition metals: …in plants and microorganisms; (2) cytochrome oxidase, which contains heme and copper in a 1:1 ratio; (3) tyrosinases, which catalyze the formation of melanin (brownish-black pigments occurring in hair, skin, and retina of higher animals) and were the first enzymes in which copper was shown to be essential to function.

hydrocarbon: Reactions: …of biological oxidation by the cytochrome P-450 enzyme system in the liver, benzene and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons undergo epoxidation of their ring. The epoxides that form react with deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), and it is believed that this process is responsible for the carcinogenic properties of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons.

Paramecium: In cytogamy, another type of self-fertilization, two organisms join together but do not undergo nuclear exchange.

cytogenetics, in cell biology, field that deals with chromosomes and their inheritance, particularly as applied to medical genetics. Chromosomes are microscopic structures found in cells, and malformations associated with them lead to numerous genetic diseases. Chromosomal analysis has steadily

cytokine, any of a group of small, short-lived proteins that are released by one cell to regulate the function of another cell, thereby serving as intercellular chemical messengers. Cytokines effect changes in cellular behaviour that are important in a number of physiological processes, including

cytokinesis, in biology, the process by which one cell physically divides into two cells. Cytokinesis represents the major reproductive procedure of unicellular organisms, and it occurs in the process of embryonic development and tissue growth and repair of higher plants and animals. It generally

cytokinin, any of a number of plant hormones that influence growth and the stimulation of cell division. Cytokinins are synthesized in the roots and are usually derived from adenine. They move upward in the xylem (woody tissue) and pass into the leaves and fruits, where they are required for normal

cytology, the study of cells as fundamental units of living things. The earliest phase of cytology began with the English scientist Robert Hooke’s microscopic investigations of cork in 1665. He observed dead cork cells and introduced the term “cell” to describe them. In the 19th century two

cytomegalovirus (CMV), any of several viruses in the herpes family (Herpesviridae), frequently involved in human infection. The virus is so named for the enlarged cells produced by active infections; these cells are characterized by the inclusion of foreign matter, especially in the nucleus.

cytomegalovirus (CMV), any of several viruses in the herpes family (Herpesviridae), frequently involved in human infection. The virus is so named for the enlarged cells produced by active infections; these cells are characterized by the inclusion of foreign matter, especially in the nucleus.

cytopathic effect (CPE), structural changes in a host cell resulting from viral infection. CPE occurs when the infecting virus causes lysis (dissolution) of the host cell or when the cell dies without lysis because of its inability to

cytopathic effect (CPE), structural changes in a host cell resulting from viral infection. CPE occurs when the infecting virus causes lysis (dissolution) of the host cell or when the cell dies without lysis because of its inability to

cytoplasm, the semifluid substance of a cell that is external to the nuclear membrane and internal to the cellular membrane, sometimes described as the nonnuclear content of protoplasm. In eukaryotes (i.e., cells having a nucleus), the cytoplasm contains all of the organelles. Among such organelles

cell: The process of differentiation: …or more regulatory substances called cytoplasmic determinants. When the embryo has become a solid mass of blastomeres (called a morula), it generally consists of two or more differently committed cell populations—a result of the blastomeres having incorporated different cytoplasmic determinants. Cytoplasmic determinants may consist of mRNA or protein in a…

heredity: Extranuclear DNA: All of the genetic information in a cell was initially thought to be confined to the DNA in the chromosomes of the cell nucleus. It is now known that small circular chromosomes, called extranuclear, or cytoplasmic, DNA, are located in two types of…

virus: Latency: …cells in the form of extrachromosomal genes (genes not integrated in chromosomes). These dormant viruses can be activated by many factors, such as trauma, another infection, emotional stress, menstruation, excessive exposure to sunlight, and various illnesses.

plant breeding: Hybrid varieties: This system, called cytoplasmic male sterility, or cytosterility, prevents normal maturation or function of the male sex organs (stamens) and results in defective pollen or none at all. It obviates the need for removing the stamens either by hand or by machine. Cytosterility depends on the interaction between…

cytoplasmic streaming, the movement of the fluid substance (cytoplasm) within a plant or animal cell. The motion transports nutrients, proteins, and organelles within cells. First discovered in the 1830s, the presence of cytoplasmic streaming helped convince biologists that cells were the

three-parent baby: Mitochondrial replacement therapy: Ooplasmic transfer entails the injection of a small amount of cytoplasm from an egg cell (ovum) donated by a healthy woman into the mother’s egg, which is then fertilized by the father’s sperm and implanted into the mother’s uterus using IVF. Because ooplasmic transfer involves…

protozoan: Food vacuoles: …from the cell anus, or cytoproct. The length of the digestive cycle varies and depends on the species and the diet.

cytosine, a nitrogenous base derived from pyrimidine that occurs in nucleic acids, the heredity-controlling components of all living cells, and in some coenzymes, substances that act in conjunction with enzymes in chemical reactions in the body. Cytosine is one of several types of bases that are

epigenomics: Research tools of epigenomics: …before guanine residues, in so-called CpG (cytosine-phosphate-guanine) dinucleotide pairs. This phenomenon appears to be explained by the fact that the enzymes in vertebrates believed to add methyl groups to cytosines recognize CpG dinucleotide pairs almost exclusively. In embryonic stem cells, however, 25 percent of methylcytosines are not in CpG dinucleotides;…

pancreatic cancer: Symptoms and causes: Mutations in a gene designated PALLD (palladin, or cytoskeletal associated protein) have been linked to familial pancreatic cancer.

cytoskeleton, a system of filaments or fibres that is present in the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells (cells containing a nucleus). The cytoskeleton organizes other constituents of the cell, maintains the cell’s shape, and is responsible for the locomotion of the cell itself and the movement of the

muscle: Excitation/contraction coupling: …free calcium ions in the cytosol are removed by an energy-dependent calcium uptake system involving calcium ion pumps located in the longitudinal sarcoplasmic reticulum. These calcium pumps lower the concentration of free calcium in the cytosol, resulting in the dissociation (release) of calcium from the troponin-tropomyosin system. The troponin-tropomyosin system…

plant breeding: Hybrid varieties: This system, called cytoplasmic male sterility, or cytosterility, prevents normal maturation or function of the male sex organs (stamens) and results in defective pollen or none at all. It obviates the need for removing the stamens either by hand or by machine. Cytosterility depends on the interaction between…

protozoan: Mechanisms of food ingestion: …specific point, such as the cytostome (a well-developed feeding groove), at a particular region of the cell surface, or at any random point of entry. In the collared flagellates, or choanoflagellates, for example, the collar and flagellum operate in feeding. The collar, composed of fine pseudopodia, surrounds the flagellum. The…

immune system disorder: Type II hypersensitivity: Allergic reactions of this type, also known as cytotoxic reactions, occur when cells within the body are destroyed by antibodies, with or without activation of the entire complement system. When antibody binds to an antigen on the surface of a target cell,…

antibody: Antibodies in medicine and research: …lymphocyte associated antigen 4 (CTLA4). CTLA4 normally is a powerful inhibitor of T cells. Thus, by releasing the inhibitory signal, ipilimumab augments the immune response, making tumour destruction possible. Similar effects have been achieved with inhibitors of programmed cell death 1 (PD-1), a protein expressed on the surface of…

immune system disorder: Type II hypersensitivity: Allergic reactions of this type, also known as cytotoxic reactions, occur when cells within the body are destroyed by antibodies, with or without activation of the entire complement system. When antibody binds to an antigen on the surface of a target cell,…

immune system: Activation of killer cells: …cells, which may be either cytotoxic T cells or natural killer cells, have receptors that bind to the tail portion of the IgG antibody molecule (the part that does not bind to antigen). Once bound, killer cells insert a protein called perforin into the target cell, causing it to swell…

immune system: Activation of killer cells: …cells, which may be either cytotoxic T cells or natural killer cells, have receptors that bind to the tail portion of the IgG antibody molecule (the part that does not bind to antigen). Once bound, killer cells insert a protein called perforin into the target cell, causing it to swell…

human disease: Viral diseases: …viruses are said to be cytotoxic.

pregnancy: The uterus and the development of the placenta: The cytotrophoblast, which lines the cavity, forms fingers of proliferating cells extending into the syncytiotrophoblast. After the placenta is developed, these fingers will be the cores of the rootlike placental villi, structures that will draw nutrients and oxygen from the maternal blood that bathes them. This…

fungus: Annotated classification: Order Cyttariales Parasitic on plants, causes gall formation, especially on beech trees; spherical, dimpled ascocarps that are yellow to orange in colour; example genus includes Cyttaria. Order Erysiphales (powdery mildews) Parasitic on plants; ascospores or conidia

cywydd, Welsh verse form, a kind of short ode in rhyming couplets in which one rhyme is accented and the other unaccented; each line is composed of seven syllables and contains some form of cynghanedd (a complex system of alliteration and internal rhyme). Developed in the 14th century in south

cywydd, Welsh verse form, a kind of short ode in rhyming couplets in which one rhyme is accented and the other unaccented; each line is composed of seven syllables and contains some form of cynghanedd (a complex system of alliteration and internal rhyme). Developed in the 14th century in south

Argonaut: …the Doliones, by whose king, Cyzicus, they were hospitably received. After their departure, however, they were driven back to the same place by a storm and were attacked by the Doliones, who did not recognize them, and in the ensuing battle Jason killed Cyzicus. On reaching the country of the…

Cyzicus, ancient Greek town, located on the southern coast of the Sea of Marmara in what is now Balikhisar, Tur. It was probably founded as a colony of Miletus in 756 bc, and its advantageous position soon gave it commercial importance. With the collapse of Lydia (c. 544), Cyzicus came under

Callinicus Of Heliopolis: First used in the Battle of Cyzicus (c. ad 673) by the Byzantines against a Saracen fleet off Constantinople, Greek fire proved to be instrumental in that Byzantine victory.

electronic instrument: Digital synthesizers: …early digital synthesizer was the Casio CZ-101, a battery-powered four-voice keyboard instrument using simple algorithms that were modeled after the capabilities of analog synthesizers. The CZ-101 was introduced in 1984 at a price approximately one-quarter that of the DX-7 and achieved widespread popularity.

S.Y. Agnon was an Israeli writer who was one of the leading modern Hebrew novelists and short-story writers. In 1966 he was the co-recipient, with Nelly Sachs, of the Nobel Prize for Literature. Born of a family of Polish Jewish merchants, rabbis, and scholars, Agnon wrote at first (1903–06) in

tsar, title associated primarily with rulers of Russia. The term tsar, a form of the ancient Roman imperial title caesar, generated a series of derivatives in Russian: tsaritsa, a tsar’s wife, or tsarina; tsarevich, his son; tsarevna, his daughter; and tsesarevich, his eldest son and heir apparent

czardas, national dance of Hungary. A courting dance for couples, it begins with a slow section (lassu), followed by an exhilarating fast section (friss). The individual dancers carry themselves proudly and improvise on a simple fundamental step, their feet snapping inward and outward, the couples

tsar, title associated primarily with rulers of Russia. The term tsar, a form of the ancient Roman imperial title caesar, generated a series of derivatives in Russian: tsaritsa, a tsar’s wife, or tsarina; tsarevich, his son; tsarevna, his daughter; and tsesarevich, his eldest son and heir apparent

Vistula River: Physiography: Its main sources are the Czarna Wisełka and the Biała Wisełka, two brooks that meet to form the Mała Wisła (“Small Vistula”), which then flows northward. Some 25 miles farther on, the river gradient decreases suddenly to some 0.04 percent; from there, after turning eastward, the Vistula enters Lake Goczałkowice,…

Juliusz Kaden-Bandrowski: …he is best known include Czarne skrzydła (1928–29; “Black Wings”), which examines social problems in Poland’s coal-mining regions, Generał Barcz (1922–23; “General Barcz”), and Mateusz Bigda (1933; “Matthew Bigda”). The latter two satirically describe political life after Poland regained independence. Considered by many critics to offer caricatures of real political…

Czartoryski family, the leading noble family of Poland in the 18th century, eclipsing the rival Potocki family in both power and prestige. Although the members of the Czartoryski family trace their lineage back to the 14th-century noble Gedymin (Gediminas) of Lithuania, they first achieved

Adam Jerzy, Prince Czartoryski was a Polish statesman who worked unceasingly for the restoration of Poland when Russia, Prussia, and Austria had partitioned his country’s former lands among themselves. Czartoryski was the most renowned member of a princely family, descended from the Lithuanian

Adam Kazimierz, Prince Czartoryski was a leading member of the princely Czartoryski family and a patron of the arts, education, and culture. The son of Aleksander August Czartoryski, governor of Ruthenia, who gathered a great estate and founded prosperous workshops, Adam Kazimierz was educated in

Michał Fryderyk, Prince Czartoryski was a Polish statesman who made his family party of Czartoryskis, the so-called Familia, the leading party in Poland. Educated at Paris, Florence, and Rome, Czartoryski attached himself to the Saxon court and obtained the vice chancellorship of Lithuania. He was

Czech Republic: Ethnic groups: Czechs make up roughly two-thirds of the population. The Moravians consider themselves to be a distinct group within this majority. A small Slovak minority remains from the Czechoslovakian federal period. An even smaller Polish population exists in northeastern Moravia, and some Germans still live in…

Czechoslovak history: The establishment of the republic: …Democracy yielded primacy to the Czech Agrarians, or Republicans, as the latter party was officially renamed. The Agrarians were the backbone of government coalitions until the disruption of the republic during World War II; from its ranks came Antonín Švehla (prime minister, 1921–29) and his successors.

Czechoslovakia, former country in central Europe encompassing the historical lands of Bohemia, Moravia, and Slovakia. Czechoslovakia was formed from several provinces of the collapsing empire of Austria-Hungary in 1918, at the end of World War I. In the interwar period it became the most prosperous

Moravia, traditional region in central Europe that served as the centre of a major medieval kingdom, known as Great Moravia, before it was incorporated into the kingdom of Bohemia in the 11th century. In the 20th century Moravia became part of the modern state of Czechoslovakia and subsequently of

Bohemia, historical country of central Europe that was a kingdom in the Holy Roman Empire and subsequently a province in the Habsburgs’ Austrian Empire. Bohemia was bounded on the south by Austria, on the west by Bavaria, on the north by Saxony and Lusatia, on the northeast by Silesia, and on the

Czech language, West Slavic language closely related to Slovak, Polish, and the Sorbian languages of eastern Germany. It is spoken in the historical regions of Bohemia, Moravia, and southwestern Silesia in the Czech Republic, where it is the official language. Czech is written in the Roman (Latin)

Czech literature, the body of writing in the Czech language. Before 1918 there was no independent Czechoslovak state, and Bohemia and Moravia—the Czech-speaking regions that, with part of Silesia, now constitute the Czech Republic—were for a long time provinces of the Habsburg Holy Roman and

Czech Republic: Finance: …the day of partition, the Czech National Bank and its Slovak counterpart replaced the federal monobank, the State Bank of Czechoslovakia. Initially, however, the federal monetary system remained essentially intact, with each country identifying its currency by applying stamps to it. The rapid economic divergence of the two republics, however,…

Czech Republic: Constitutional framework: On December 16, 1992, the Czech National Council adopted a new constitution establishing the Czech Republic as a parliamentary democracy. This document reflects the Western liberal tradition of political thought and incorporates many of the principles codified in the Charter of Fundamental Rights and Freedoms, which was adopted by the…

history of film: Russia, eastern Europe, and Central Asia: …encouraged the development of the Czech New Wave (1962–68), which became similarly entangled in politics. The Czechoslovak films that reached international audiences during this period were widely acclaimed for their freshness and formal experimentation, but they faced official disapproval at home, and many were suppressed for being politically subversive. Among…

Vladimir Ashkenazy: …as chief conductor of the Czech Philharmonic Orchestra (1998–2003) and of the Sydney Symphony Orchestra (2009–13). In 2020 it was announced that he would no longer perform in public.

Czech Republic, landlocked country located in central Europe. It comprises the historical provinces of Bohemia and Moravia along with the southern tip of Silesia, collectively often called the Czech Lands. In 2016 the country adopted the name “Czechia” as a shortened, informal name for the Czech