Carthage, great city of antiquity on the north coast of Africa, now a residential suburb of the city of Tunis, Tunisia. Built on a promontory on the Tunisian coast, it was placed to influence and control ships passing between Sicily and the North African coast as they traversed the Mediterranean

Tarragona, city, capital of Tarragona provincia (province), in the comunidad autónoma (autonomous community) of Catalonia, northeastern Spain. It lies at the mouth of the Francolí River, on a hill (230 feet [70 metres] high) rising abruptly from the Mediterranean Sea. Tarragona is a flourishing

colony, in Roman antiquity, a Roman settlement in conquered territory. The earliest colonies were coast-guard communities, each containing about 300 Roman citizens and their families. By 200 bc a system of such Roman maritime colonies maintained guard over the coasts throughout Italy. The Romans

Portugal: The Salazar regime: …in 1930, he prepared the Colonial Act, assimilating the administration of the overseas territories to his system. In July 1932 Salazar became prime minister, a post he was to hold (along with other key ministries during crises) until 1968.

William Lyon Mackenzie: …a newspaper in Queenston, the Colonial Advocate, in which he criticized the ruling oligarchy. Later that year he moved to York (as of 1834, Toronto); there his newspaper office was sabotaged by political opponents, but, with the damages awarded, he set up an improved plant and became leader of the…

Juan T. Trippe: …classmates and another friend formed Colonial Air Transport, which began the first airmail contract route between New York City and Boston. In 1927 he arranged a merger between Colonial Air and two other small airlines, forming Pan American Airways, with himself as president. That year Pan American inaugurated the first…

American colonies, the 13 British colonies that were established during the 17th and early 18th centuries in what is now a part of the eastern United States. The colonies grew both geographically along the Atlantic coast and westward and numerically to 13 from the time of their founding to the

Western architecture: Colonial architecture in North America: The colonial architecture of the United States and Canada was as diverse as the peoples who settled there: English, Dutch, French, Swedish, Spanish, German, Scots-Irish. Each group carried with it the style and building customs of the mother country, adapting…

Australia: European settlement: …put this first among the colony’s intended purposes. But some historians have argued that this glossed a scheme to provide a bastion for British sea power in the eastern seas. Some have seen a purely strategic purpose in settlement, but others have postulated an intent to use the colony as…

urban culture: The colonial city: Colonial cities arose in societies that fell under the domination of Europe and North America in the early expansion of the capitalist world system. The colonial relationship required altering the productivity of the colonial society in order that its wealth could be exported…

western Africa: Decolonization and the regaining of independence: …Britain had enacted the first Colonial Development Act, providing that small amounts of British government money could be used for colonial economic development, thus breaking the deadlock by which the only colonial governments that could embark on development programs to increase the wealth of their subjects, and to improve their…

Jamaica: Self-government of Jamaica: …island profited greatly from the Colonial Development and Welfare Act and from outside investment. Colonial Development grants financed the building of the Jamaican branch of the University of the West Indies (established 1948), which became an important factor in the preparation for independence. A sugar refinery, citrus-processing plants, a cement…

Maryland: Cultural life: The city’s 40-block Colonial Historic District contains more structures dating from before the American Revolution than any other U.S. historic district. The narrow, crooked streets of Annapolis, the houses abutting directly on the brickwork sidewalks, the graceful tree-covered green about the statehouse, and the myriad masts of boats…

Council for World Mission: …by the merger of the Commonwealth Missionary Society and the London Missionary Society. The Commonwealth Missionary Society (originally the Colonial Missionary Society) was organized in 1836 to promote Congregationalism in the English-speaking colonies. The London Missionary Society was founded in 1795 as a nondenominational organization dedicated to spreading the Christian…

Colonial National Historical Park, historical reservation that covers a total area of approximately 15 square miles (39 square km) in southeastern Virginia, U.S. Situated on a peninsula between the York and James rivers, it comprises five discrete units. The park was established in 1936 from

novel: Other types: …no longer exist, include the colonial novel—such as E.M. Forster’s Passage to India (1924), Henri Fauconnier’s Malaisie (1930), and the African sequence of Joyce Cary—and space fantasy like H.G. Wells’s First Men in the Moon (1901). One may read examples of a departed category with pleasure and profit, but the…

British Empire: Dominance and dominions: …Chamberlain’s tenure (1895–1900) in the Colonial Office. That office, which began in 1801, was first an appendage of the Home Office and the Board of Trade, but by the 1850s it had become a separate department with a growing staff and a continuing policy; it was the means by which…

Colonial National Historical Park: …of colonial Virginia); and the Colonial Parkway, which is a 23-mile (37-kilometre) link between Jamestown, Williamsburg (not part of the national park but associated with colonial American culture and Revolutionary sentiment), and Yorktown, the main points around Virginia’s historic triangle. This scenic route runs alongside forests, marshes, fields, and shorelines…

Charles McLean Andrews: teacher and historian whose Colonial Period of American History, vol. 1 of 4, won him a Pulitzer Prize in 1935.

Moreton Bay pine, (Araucaria cunninghamii), large evergreen timber conifer of the family Araucariaceae. The Moreton Bay pine is native to the coastal rainforests of northern New South Wales to northern Queensland in eastern Australia and the Arfak Mountains of western New Guinea. The plant is

geography: Influence of the social sciences: …exemplified in Derek Gregory’s seminal The Colonial Present: Afghanistan, Palestine, Iraq (2004).

Ordnance Survey International, former surveying, mapping, and aerial photography agency (1946–2001) of the British government, which provided advice on technical matters concerning all aspects of surveying and mapping. The maps created by the agency were produced using aerial photography and

Virginia: Cultural life: Foremost among these is Colonial Williamsburg, a living museum staffed by highly trained historical interpreters, who, dressed in period clothing, reenact various aspects of colonial life in and around the town’s expertly restored 17th- and 18th-century buildings. Striking examples of colonial architecture also are found at such preserved homes…

history of Europe: Greeks: …expansion through the founding of colonies overseas. The coasts and islands of Anatolia were occupied from south to north by the Dorians, Ionians, and Aeolians, respectively. In addition, individual colonies were strung out around the shores of the Black Sea in the north and across the eastern Mediterranean to Naukratis…

Western colonialism, a political-economic phenomenon whereby various European nations explored, conquered, settled, and exploited large areas of the world. The age of modern colonialism began about 1500, following the European discoveries of a sea route around Africa’s southern coast (1488) and of

American colonies, the 13 British colonies that were established during the 17th and early 18th centuries in what is now a part of the eastern United States. The colonies grew both geographically along the Atlantic coast and westward and numerically to 13 from the time of their founding to the

angiosperm: Distribution and abundance: …has contributed to their successful colonization of more habitats than any other group of land plants. Gymnosperms (the nonflowering seed plants) are only woody plants with a few woody twining vines. There are few herbaceous or aquatic gymnosperms; most gymnosperms do not occur as swampy vegetation or in marine habitats.…

history of Europe: Greeks: …expansion through the founding of colonies overseas. The coasts and islands of Anatolia were occupied from south to north by the Dorians, Ionians, and Aeolians, respectively. In addition, individual colonies were strung out around the shores of the Black Sea in the north and across the eastern Mediterranean to Naukratis…

Herbert Eugene Bolton: Marshall on The Colonization of North America, 1492–1783, which emphasized non-English colonies and English colonies other than the original 13. His concept of the Americas was most fully expressed in his presidential speech to the American Historical Association in 1932, “The Epic of Greater America,” a critique of…

Colonna Family, noble Roman family of great antiquity and importance, descended from the 10th-century counts of Tusculum. The first to take the name Colonna (“de Columna”) was Piero, the son of Gregorio, Count of Tusculum, who on Gregorio’s death (c. 1064) received the castle of Colonna in the

Martin V was the pope from 1417 to 1431. A cardinal subdeacon who had helped organize the Council of Pisa in 1409, he was unanimously elected pope on Nov. 11, 1417, in a conclave held during the Council of Constance (1414–18), which had been called to end the Great Schism (1378–1417), a split in

Martin V was the pope from 1417 to 1431. A cardinal subdeacon who had helped organize the Council of Pisa in 1409, he was unanimously elected pope on Nov. 11, 1417, in a conclave held during the Council of Constance (1414–18), which had been called to end the Great Schism (1378–1417), a split in

Colonna Family: …first to take the name Colonna (“de Columna”) was Piero, the son of Gregorio, Count of Tusculum, who on Gregorio’s death (c. 1064) received the castle of Colonna in the Alban Hills, together with Palestrina and other places, as his share of the inheritance. Like other Roman families, the Colonna…

Boniface VIII: Boniface’s capture: …Nogaret, with the assistance of Sciarra Colonna—a bold member of the powerful family—and with the connivance of some of the cardinals, decided to capture the pope at Anagni, where the pope was spending the summer. In this he succeeded through the momentary complicity of the local leaders of the city…

Polenta Family: …chief magistrate, the papal official Stefano Colonna arrived in Ravenna to demand that the town surrender to his authority. Guido’s sons Lamberto and Bernardino imprisoned him, kindling a revolt against papal power in the Romagna. Elected chief magistrate of Ravenna from 1286 to 1290 and again in 1292 and 1293,…

Vittoria Colonna was an Italian noblewoman who was among the most popular and notable women writing poetry during the Renaissance. Born into nobility, Colonna married Ferdinando Francesco d’Avalos, marchese di Pescara, in 1509. Her husband seems to have spent most of their married life on military

Claude Perrault: …the final design of the Colonnade, a massive row of paired columns that rises above the unadorned first story and dominates the majestic east facade of the Louvre. Perrault claimed responsibility for this design, but it is now thought that he collaborated on it with Le Vau and d’Orbay and…

colonnade, row of columns generally supporting an entablature (row of horizontal moldings), used either as an independent feature (e.g., a covered walkway) or as part of a building (e.g., a porch or portico). The earliest colonnades appear in the temple architecture of antiquity, numerous examples

sigmoidoscopy: The colonoscope is a similar flexible fibre-optic scope that is longer and can reach the cecum, thus allowing evaluation of the entire colon. Its use requires that the patient be sedated because its passage through the entire colon is more uncomfortable. A rigid 25-cm sigmoidoscope is…

colonoscopy, a medical examination of the interior of the colon (large intestine), rectum, and anus, by the insertion of a narrow, flexible, lighted tube called a colonoscope. A tiny video camera on the end of the tube transmits images of the colon to an external monitor. A colonoscopy, which is a

colonus, tenant farmer of the late Roman Empire and the European Middle Ages. The coloni were drawn from impoverished small free farmers, partially emancipated slaves, and barbarians sent to work as agricultural labourers among landed proprietors. For the lands that they rented, they paid in money,

colony, in zoology, a group of organisms of one species that live and interact closely with each other. A colony differs from an aggregation, which is a group whose members have no interaction. Small, functionally specialized, attached organisms called polyps in cnidarians and zooids in bryozoans

colony, in Roman antiquity, a Roman settlement in conquered territory. The earliest colonies were coast-guard communities, each containing about 300 Roman citizens and their families. By 200 bc a system of such Roman maritime colonies maintained guard over the coasts throughout Italy. The Romans

Bishop Hill State Historic Site: …these are the Greek Revival-style Colony Church (1848), the village’s first permanent building; the Bjorklund Hotel (1852); and the Steeple Building (1854), which houses the Bishop Hill Heritage Museum. A new building (1988) features Olof Krans’s paintings chronicling daily life in the village. Several festivals are held annually to celebrate…

colony collapse disorder (CCD), disorder affecting honeybee colonies that is characterized by sudden colony death, with a lack of healthy adult bees inside the hive. Although the cause is not known, researchers suspect that multiple factors may be involved. The disorder appears to affect the adult

Canadian literature: Fiction: …Johnston depicts Newfoundland’s history in The Colony of Unrequited Dreams (1998), a novel based on the life of Joey Smallwood, the province’s dynamic first premier. In River Thieves (2001), Michael Crummey describes the extinction of the Beothuk, an indigenous people of Newfoundland, and Lisa Moore’s Alligator (2005) dissects lives in…

blood: Blood cells: …(glycoproteins), referred to collectively as colony-stimulating factors (CSFs). These factors are produced throughout the body. Even in minute amounts, CSFs can stimulate the division and differentiation of precursor cells into mature blood cells and thus exert powerful regulatory influences over the production of blood cells. A master colony-stimulating factor (multi-CSF),…

Colophon, ancient Ionian Greek city, located about 15 miles (24 km) northwest of Ephesus, in modern Turkey. It was a flourishing commercial city from the 8th to the 5th century bc with its harbour at Notium. Colophon was ruled by a timocracy (government based on wealth) and was famous for its

colophon, an inscription placed at the end of a book or manuscript and giving details of its publication—e.g., the name of the printer and the date of printing. Colophons are sometimes found in manuscripts and books made from the 6th century ce on. In medieval and Renaissance manuscripts, a

rosin, translucent, brittle, friable resin used for varnish and in manufacturing many products. It becomes sticky when warm and has a faint pinelike odour. Gum rosin consists of the residue obtained upon distillation of the oleoresin (a natural fluid) from pine trees (the volatile component is

rosin, translucent, brittle, friable resin used for varnish and in manufacturing many products. It becomes sticky when warm and has a faint pinelike odour. Gum rosin consists of the residue obtained upon distillation of the oleoresin (a natural fluid) from pine trees (the volatile component is

Zambezi River: Plant life: Mopane woodland (Colophospermum mopane) is predominant on the alluvial flats of the low-lying river valleys and is highly susceptible to fire. Grass, when present, is typically short and sparse. Forestland with species of the genus Baikiaea, found extensively on sandy interfluves between drainage channels, is…

sweet shrub: A beetle (Colopterus truncatus is the beetle that pollinates C. occidentalis) enters the flower and transfers pollen gathered from a flower it visited earlier to the stigma. After pollen is shed by the flower and lands on the beetle, the inner parts of the flower fold back…

Miguel de Cervantes: Publication of Don Quixote: El coloquio de los perros (“Colloquy of the Dogs,” Eng. trans. in Three Exemplary Novels [1952]), a quasi-picaresque novella, with its frame tale El casamiento engañoso (“The Deceitful Marriage”), is probably Cervantes’s most profound and original creation next to Don Quixote. In the 17th century…

colour, the aspect of any object that may be described in terms of hue, lightness, and saturation. In physics, colour is associated specifically with electromagnetic radiation of a certain range of wavelengths visible to the human eye. Radiation of such wavelengths constitutes that portion of the

food colouring: In the United States the Color Additives Amendments were passed in 1960. Among the colours that have been “delisted,” or disallowed, in the United States are FD&C Orange No. 1; FD&C Red No. 32; FD&C Yellows No. 1, 2, 3, and 4; FD&C Violet No. 1; and FD&C Reds No.…

Kwame Anthony Appiah: In Color Conscious: The Political Morality of Race (1996; with Amy Guttman), Appiah argued that the notion of biological race is conceptually problematic and criticized what he saw as the tendency to overstate the importance of race as a component of individual identity. The Ethics of…

Martin Scorsese: Films of the 1980s: Raging Bull, The King of Comedy, and The Color of Money: The Color of Money (1986) was an adaptation of Walter Tevis’s sequel to his earlier novel The Hustler (1959, film 1961). “Fast Eddie” Felson (Paul Newman, reprising his Oscar-nominated role as a pool hustler) is now retired from competition. He smells raw talent in callow…

12 Contemporary Black Authors You Must Read: James McBride: …author with his first book, The Color of Water (1996), a memoir of his white, Jewish mother. McBride went on to win a National Book Award for his novel The Good Lord Bird (2013), which tells the story of an enslaved boy who joins the crusade of abolitionist John Brown.…

Alice Walker: The Color Purple: A film adaptation of the musical was released in 2023, featuring Fantasia Barrino, Taraji P. Henson, Colman Domingo, and Danielle Brooks.

The Color Purple, novel by Alice Walker, published in 1982. It won a Pulitzer Prize in 1983, making Walker the first African American woman to win a Pulitzer for fiction. A feminist work about an abused and uneducated African American woman’s struggle for empowerment, The Color Purple was praised

Steven Spielberg: Commercial success: >The Color Purple (1985). The film explores an African American woman’s almost unbearably harsh, yet ultimately fulfilling, life. Color was roundly criticized for downplaying the novel’s lesbian element, for perpetuating stereotypes about black men, and for sentimentalizing life in the Deep South. Nevertheless, it found…

color wheel, diagram used in the visual arts to represent the colors of the visible spectrum and their relationships to each other. The colors are arranged systematically in a circle, with each hue falling usually into one of three categories: primary, secondary, or intermediate. In fields such as

love: Psychological theories of love: …1970s, is known as the color wheel model. Created by the Canadian psychologist John Lee, the theory is based on an analogy with the set of primary and secondary colors and draws upon ancient Greek terms for various forms or aspects of love. The three “primary” styles of love in…

color-field painting, with Action painting, one of two major strains of the 20th-century art movement known as Abstract Expressionism or the New York school. The term typically describes large-scale canvases dominated by flat expanses of color and having a minimum of surface detail. Color-field

Colorado, constituent state of the United States of America. It is classified as one of the Mountain states, although only about half of its area lies in the Rocky Mountains. It borders Wyoming and Nebraska to the north, Nebraska and Kansas to the east, Oklahoma and New Mexico to the south, and

Tsáchila, Indian people of the Pacific coast of Ecuador. They live in the tropical lowlands of the northwest, where, along with the neighbouring Chachi, they are the last remaining aboriginal group. The Tsáchila are linguistically related to the Chachi, although their Chibchan languages are

Colorado Avalanche, American professional ice hockey team based in Denver that plays in the Western Conference of the National Hockey League (NHL). The Avalanche have won three Stanley Cup championships (1996, 2001, and 2022). The franchise was originally based in Quebec, Canada, and was known as

Christopher Wheeldon: He created pieces for the Colorado Ballet and Boston Ballet, and in late 1999 it was announced that Wheeldon had been appointed Boston Ballet’s principal guest choreographer. He also supplied some of the original choreography for the motion pictures Center Stage (2000), Ballets russes (2005), and The Sleeping Beauty (2008).

Yuma, city, seat (1871) of Yuma county, southwestern Arizona, U.S. It is situated on the Colorado River at the mouth of the Gila River, just north of the Mexican frontier. Founded in 1854 as Colorado City, it was renamed Arizona City (1862) and Yuma (1873), probably from the Spanish word humo,

Colorado College, private liberal-arts college in Colorado Springs, Colo., founded in 1874. It offers a range of traditional and interdisciplinary programs leading to the bachelor’s degree. Special programs include American ethnic studies, Southwest studies, environmental studies, and

Colorado Desert, part of the Sonoran Desert, extending southeastward for 164 miles (264 km) from the San Gorgonio Pass in southeastern California, U.S., to the Colorado River delta in northern Mexico. A low-lying arid region, it is bounded by the Pacific coastal ranges (west), the San Bernardino,

Ludlow Massacre: …the Colorado National Guard and Colorado Fuel and Iron Company guards at Ludlow, Colorado, on April 20, 1914, resulting in the deaths of 25 people, including 11 children.

Colorado: Education: Colorado Mesa University (1925), in Grand Junction, serves the westernmost part of the state. Another public institution, Fort Lewis College (1964), in Durango, grew from an Indian school founded in 1911 into a liberal arts college whose mission includes providing tuition-free education for Native Americans.

Colorado National Monument, scenic wilderness area in west-central Colorado, U.S., just west of the city of Grand Junction; the Colorado River parallels the eastern boundary of the monument. Established in 1911, it occupies an area of 32 square miles (83 square km). Situated on the Uncompahgre

Horacio Cartes: …to enter politics, joining the Colorado Party in 2009 and mounting his own movement within it, though theretofore he had never even voted. When the party, impressed by Cartes’s business acumen, dropped its requirement that an individual be a member of the party for 10 years before becoming a presidential…

José Batlle y Ordóñez: Shortly thereafter he joined the Colorado Party, one of the two ruling political parties of Uruguay, and in 1890 he started work to transform his party into a nationwide democratic political organization. He was elected to the Uruguayan Chamber of Deputies in 1893 and to the Senate for Montevideo in…

Colorado: Relief and drainage: …miles (440 km) long, the Colorado Piedmont is a picturesque hilly to mountainous landscape sandwiched between the plains and the mountains. It encompasses all the state’s large urban complexes, its major transport arteries, most of its industry, most of its major colleges and universities, and four-fifths of its people. The…

Colorado Plateau, a physiographic province of the Intermontane Plateaus region, extending across the southwestern United States and covering the southeastern half of Utah, extreme western and southwestern Colorado, northwestern New Mexico, and the northern half of Arizona. The province, which

Colorado Plateau, a physiographic province of the Intermontane Plateaus region, extending across the southwestern United States and covering the southeastern half of Utah, extreme western and southwestern Colorado, northwestern New Mexico, and the northern half of Arizona. The province, which

Colorado potato beetle, (Leptinotarsa decemlineata), insect pest that attacks the leaves of potato plants. This leaf beetle belongs to the subfamily Chrysomelinae of the family Chrysomelidae (order Coleoptera). It is native to western North America and originally fed on buffalo bur, a wild plant of

Rocky Mountains: Water resources: …these projects is in the Colorado Rockies, where a complex network of reservoirs, tunnels, and pipelines diverts water from the western slope of the Front Range to the large urban area centred on Denver along the eastern slope. This scheme, opposed by residents of the range’s western slope, is the…

Major League Soccer: Western Conference: Colorado Rapids (based near Denver in Commerce City, Colorado), FC Dallas, Houston Dynamo, Los Angeles Galaxy, Los Angeles FC, Minnesota United FC, Portland Timbers, Real Salt Lake, San Jose Earthquakes, Seattle Sounders FC,

Colorado River, river in south-central Argentina. Its major headstreams, the Grande and Barrancas rivers, flow southward from the eastern flanks of the Andes and meet north of Buta Ranquil to form the Colorado. The river flows generally east-southeastward across the arid terrain of northern

Colorado River, major river of North America, rising in the Rocky Mountains of Colorado, U.S., and flowing generally west and south for 1,450 miles (2,330 kilometres) into the Gulf of California in northwestern Mexico. Its drainage basin covers 246,000 square miles (637,000 square kilometres) and

Colorado River, river rising in western Texas, U.S., on the Llano Estacado (“Staked Plain”) in Dawson county, northeast of Lamesa. It flows generally southeastward past Colorado City, through rolling prairie and rugged hill and canyon country. By means of the Highland Lakes, six

California: Drainage: The Colorado River Aqueduct at the Arizona border carries water from that river across the southern California desert and mountains to serve the Los Angeles metropolitan area. The California State Water Project, launched in 1960, is the largest water-transfer system ever undertaken. It is designed to…

Phoenix: Postwar growth: …project, and in 1968 the Colorado River Basin Project Act was passed. The act authorized the CAP, which involved constructing a series of dams along with a canal that would divert water from the Colorado River to be used by many communities, including Phoenix and Tucson.

Colorado River: Economic development: In 1922 the Colorado River Compact was concluded by the seven states that constitute its drainage area to facilitate federal investment in dams and reclamation. The river was divided at Lees Ferry, Ariz., into the lower compact states—Arizona, Nevada, and California—and the upper compact states—Wyoming, Utah, Colorado, and…

squawfish: The largest species, the Colorado River squawfish, or white salmon (P. lucius), may grow to about 1.5 metres (5 feet) with a reported weight of about 36 kilograms (79 pounds); because of changes in its habitat, this species has declined significantly and is considered endangered.

toad: The poisons of the Colorado River toad (B. alvarius) and the giant toad (B. marinus, also called the cane toad) affect animals as large as dogs, in some instances causing temporary paralysis or even death. The Chinese have long used dried toad poison to treat various ailments. Contrary to…

New Jersey Devils, American professional ice hockey team based in Newark, New Jersey. The Devils play in the Atlantic Division of the Eastern Conference in the National Hockey League (NHL). The franchise found little success until the 1990s, when it established itself as one of the NHL’s most

Colorado Rockies, American professional baseball team based in Denver that plays in the National League (NL). The Rockies have never won a division title, but they advanced to the 2007 World Series after gaining a playoff berth as the NL Wild Card entrant (as owner of the best record for a

Colorado School of Mines, public, coeducational institution of higher learning in Golden, Colorado, U.S. It is an applied-science and engineering college with a curriculum that covers such subjects as geology, environmental science, metallurgical and materials engineering, chemistry, mining,

University of Denver, private, coeducational institution of higher learning in Denver, Colorado, U.S. Though the university is supported by the United Methodist Church, it maintains a nonsectarian approach to education. It is known for its business school and international studies program, and it

baseball: Women in baseball: Beginning in 1994, the Colorado Silver Bullets, sponsored by a brewing company and managed by Hall of Fame pitcher Phil Niekro, competed against men’s teams for four years. Between 1997 and 2000 Ila Borders, a left-handed pitcher, played for two men’s teams in the independent Northern League. While women…

Daniel Guggenheim: …a trust known as the Colorado Smelting and Refining Company. The trust acquired control of the American Smelting and Refining Company in 1901 and became the dominant force in the mining industry for the next three decades. Directing the trust until 1919 and exercising a dominant influence on it in…

Colorado Springs, city, seat (1873) of El Paso county, central Colorado, U.S. It stands on a mesa (6,008 feet [1,831 metres]) near the eastern base of Pikes Peak, east of Pike National Forest. Founded in 1871 as Fountain Colony by Gen. William J. Palmer, builder of the Denver and Rio Grande Western

spruce: Major species: The blue spruce, or Colorado spruce (P. pungens), has a similar range and is used as an ornamental because of its bluish leaves and symmetrical growth habit. The Norway spruce (P. abies), an important timber and ornamental tree native to northern Europe, is used in reforestation…

University of Northern Colorado, public, coeducational institution of higher learning in Greeley, Colorado, U.S. It includes colleges of Arts and Sciences, Business Administration, Education, Health and Human Sciences, and Performing and Visual Arts. The university’s graduate school offers more