spatial memory

spatial memory, storage and retrieval of information within the brain that is needed both to plan a route to a desired location and to remember where an object is located or where an event occurred. Finding one’s way around an environment and remembering where things are within it are crucial everyday processes that rely on spatial memory. As animals navigate the world, they store information about their surroundings to form a coherent spatial representation of the environment in memory. The basic neural processes involved in spatial memory were elucidated by British American neuroscientist John O’Keefe and Norwegian neuroscientists May-Britt Moser and Edvard I. Moser; the three shared the 2014 Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine for their discoveries.

Areas of the brain involved in spatial memory

Areas of the brain that are required for the formation of spatial representations of the environment include the hippocampus and surrounding medial temporal lobes, which are also known to play a key role in episodic memory (the memory system for specific events). Various approaches have been used to elucidate the involvement of these areas in spatial memory. Work in rodents, for example, has utilized mazelike environments in which the animal is required to learn the location of a reward or an escape platform. Over a number of trials, rodents quickly learn the desired goal location and use the most-direct route to reach it. Remembering a place in the environment via the hippocampal formation differs from trial-and-error learning to associate a sensory stimulus with a specific action (e.g., remembering to turn left at a junction to retrieve a reward), which is supported by the striatum (an area of the forebrain). The significance of the hippocampus to spatial memory is illustrated by the severe disruption in the learning of goal location and navigation to the goal that occurs when the hippocampus is damaged.

Place cells, head-direction cells, and grid cells

The functional roles of neurons in and around the hippocampus of freely behaving rodents have been characterized by their spatial firing patterns. As the rodent explores its environment, neurons in the hippocampus increase their firing rate at specific locations. These so-called place cells increase their firing whenever the rodent enters a preferred firing location, or place field. The firing of multiple place cells within the hippocampus can “map” an entire environment and provide the animal with a representation of its current location. The location-specific firing of place cells is context-dependent. A place cell that increases its firing in one location of an environment might fire in an unrelated location when the animal is placed in another environment, or it might not fire at all, a property called remapping. Sensory information from the environment, such as colours and textures, plays an important role in remapping, while a place cell’s preferred firing location often reflects information concerning the distance and direction to environmental boundaries. Boundary cells, which are found in brain areas that provide input to the hippocampus, increase their firing at a preferred distance from a specific boundary. As such, a small number of boundary cells can provide sufficient information to cause place cells to fire in their preferred locations.

While place cells represent the animal’s current location, head-direction cells provide information about the animal’s current heading, independent of its location. These cells are found in a range of areas both within (e.g., presubiculum and entorhinal cortex) and outside the hippocampal formation (e.g., the retrosplenial cortex, which is located at the back of the corpus callosum, the structure connecting the left and right hemispheres of the brain). Each head-direction cell shows a preferred direction, firing rapidly whenever the animal faces in the cell’s preferred direction.

Grid cells, predominantly found in the medial entorhinal cortex, also fire in specific locations as the rodent freely explores its environment. However, unlike place cells, grid cells each have multiple firing fields that tile the entire environment in a regular triangular pattern. The periodic firing pattern of grid cells is thought to be involved in path integration (the use of self-motion signals to estimate the distance and direction the animal has traveled) and to contribute to the representation of location.

Taken together, the spatial properties of the different cells can provide a representation of the animal’s location and orientation within its environment. Such representations are likely to be important in planning and guiding future behaviour.

Studies of spatial memory in humans

While many of the findings on spatial cells have been derived from rodent experiments, research has also provided support for similar neural correlates of spatial memory in humans. Tasks similar to those used with rodents have been adapted for experiments with humans by using virtual reality. In those tasks, realistic virtual environments are created, and participants perform memory tasks within the environments in combination with neuroimaging techniques. Studies using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), for example, show that the hippocampus is involved in the navigation of large-scale virtual worlds and in learning the location of objects placed in a virtual arena. Consistent with studies in other species, the use of within-environment landmarks to guide behaviour in humans is supported by the striatum of the brain.

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More-direct evidence for specific cell types in the human hippocampus and their role in spatial representations has been provided by studies with epilepsy patients. In a large number of these patients, seizures are often localized to the hippocampus, with patients frequently experiencing deficits on a broad range of memory tasks. Using intracranial electrodes, researchers are able to localize the origin of a seizure and record single-cell activity while patients perform spatial-memory tasks. Such work has identified place-responsive cells in the hippocampal formation that have firing properties similar to the place cells and grid cells described in rodents. Evidence suggests that these spatial cells are not restricted to the hippocampal formation and therefore might play a wider role in memory and behaviour in humans than in rodents.

While the hippocampal formation is implicated in representing and remembering environmental locations, the locations of objects relative to the body are represented in areas of the parietal lobe that coordinate actions such as reaching and grasping (the parietal lobe is one of the major brain lobes and specializes in the processing of sensory information). Neurons in posterior parietal areas in monkeys show responses tuned to visual stimuli in specific retinotopic locations (brain areas relating the visual field to neuronal pathways), similar to neurons that show retinotopic responses in visual regions of the brain. However, the firing rates of many of these neurons are also modulated by the angle of gaze and by the orientation of the head or the body. Such “gain field” responses are ideal for translating between reference frames, such as from retinotopic (visual) to body-centred so as to be able to reach toward an object, or between egocentric representations (locations in space relative to the body) in parietal areas and allocentric representations (locations in space relative to the environment) in medial temporal areas.

Unilateral damage to parietal areas can cause hemispatial neglect, in which one-half of the spatial scene around the person is left unattended. The interaction between medial temporal lobe areas involved in long-term memory and parietal areas involved in short-term perception, action, and attention can be seen in hemispatial-neglect patients who can remember a familiar environment but can recall details from only one-half of it (e.g., only the details from the left side of the environment can be described at one time; in order to describe both sides of the environment, the individual must use opposing vantage points). These systems work together to support spatial cognition, perhaps being linked by the intervening retrosplenial cortex.

Spatial memory and disease

Research on spatial memory and the specific brain areas involved has been especially important in understanding disease. For example, atrophy in the hippocampal formation is an early feature in the progression of Alzheimer disease, with patients demonstrating impairments in spatial orientation and navigation. Further understanding of the brain areas that contribute to spatial memory and the way in which it plays a role in everyday function is expected to inform the development of new treatments.