The determination of the sex of an individual, with regard to both the primary sex—i.e., whether the ovaries or the testes develop—and the various secondary sexual characteristics may be rigorously controlled from the start of development or may be subject to later influences of a hormonal or environmental nature. However this may be, in order to appreciate the action of the control systems, the point of departure is that animals were primitively hermaphrodite, that during early stages of evolution every individual probably possessed both male and female gonads. Differentiation into separate sexes, each possessing male or female gonads but not both at the same time, is a device to ensure cross-fertilization of eggs, whether this is accomplished by having the two types of sexual gland mature at different stages of the growth of the individual, as in some shrimp and others, or whether by the production of two distinct types of individuals, as in most species of animals. This point of view is important because the question ceases to be how testes are caused to develop in the male organism and ovaries in the female but how, in a potentially double-sexed organism, the development of one or the other sex is suppressed. That such is the case is seen as clearly as anywhere in the human condition itself. Neither sex is completely male or female. Females have functional, well-developed mammary glands. Males also have mammary glands, undeveloped and nonfunctional although equipped with nipples. Males have a penis for delivering sperm, but females have a small, nonfunctional equivalent—the clitoris. These are secondary sexual features, to be sure, but the difference between the sexes is in the degree of their development, not a matter of absolute presence or absence.
The basis for this is seen in the very beginnings of the development of the reproductive system, in frog, mouse, and man alike. In the young embryo a pair of gonads develop that are indifferent or neutral, showing no indication whether they are destined to develop into testes or ovaries. There are also two different duct systems, one of which can develop into the female system of oviducts and related apparatus and the other into the male sperm duct system. As development of the embryo proceeds, either the male or the female reproductive tissue differentiates in the originally neutral gonad of the mammal.
In the frog and other lower vertebrate animals, the picture is even clearer. The original gonad consists of an outer layer of cells and an inner core of cells. If the individual is to be a male, the central tissue grows at the expense of the outer layer. If it is to be a female, the outer tissue grows at the expense of the central core tissue. If both should grow, which is a possibility although a rare occurrence, the individual will be a hermaphrodite. Anything that influences the direction taken therefore may be said to determine sex.
Sex chromosomes
In most species of animals the sex of individuals is determined decisively at the time of fertilization of the egg, by means of chromosomal distribution. This process is the most clear-cut form of sex determination. When any cell in the body divides, except during the formation of the sex cells, each daughter cell receives the full complement of chromosomes; i.e., copies of the two sets of chromosomes derived from the sperm cell and egg, respectively. The two sets are similar except for one pair of chromosomes. These are the so-called sex chromosomes, and the pair may be exactly alike or they may be obviously different, depending on the sex of the individual. The sex chromosomes are of two types, which are designated X and Y, and the pair of sex chromosomes may consist of two X chromosomes or of an X and Y paired together. In mammals (including man) and flies, the cells of males contain an XY pair and the cells of females contain an XX pair. On the other hand, in butterflies, fishes, and birds, the cells of females contain an XY pair and those of males contain an XX pair. In either case the Y chromosome is generally smaller than the X chromosome and may even be absent. What is most important concerning chromosomal sex determination is whether the cells of the individual contain one X chromosome or two X chromosomes. Human beings, for example, have cells with 22 pairs of nonsexual chromosomes, or autosomes, together with an XX pair or an XY pair. The female has a total of 46 functional chromosomes; the male has 45 plus a Y, which is mainly inert. Sex determination thus becomes a matter of balance. With one X chromosome plus the 44 autosomes in every cell, the whole course of development of primary and secondary sexual characteristics is toward the male; with two X chromosomes plus the autosomes in every cell, the whole system is swung over to the female.
The manipulation of this control system is readily accomplished during the special process of cell division that takes place in the gonads to produce sperm and eggs and their subsequent union at fertilization. In mammals, for example, since all cells in the female contain two X chromosomes, all the eggs will receive a single X chromosome when they are formed. All eggs are accordingly the same in this respect. In contrast, all cells in the male have the XY constitution, and therefore, when the double set of chromosomes is reduced to a single set during the formation of the spermatozoa, half of the spermatozoa will receive an X and half will receive a Y. Consequently, when an egg is fertilized by a sperm, the chances are about equal that the sperm will carry an X or will carry a Y, since the two types are inevitably produced in equal numbers. If it carries an X, the XX female constitution results; if a Y, then the XY male constitution results.
Abnormal chromosome effects
Occasionally, however, the processes of chromosomal reassortment and recombination occurring during sex cell formation and fertilization depart somewhat from the normal course. Sperm and eggs may be produced that are oversupplied or undersupplied with sex chromosomes. Fertilized eggs in humans may, for instance, have abnormal sex chromosome constitutions such as XXX, XXY, or XO. Those with the triple-X chromosome constitution have all the appearance of normal females and are called, in fact, superfemales, although only some will be fertile. Those with the XO (one X, but lacking Y altogether) constitution, a much more common condition, are also feminine in body form and type of reproduction system but remain immature. Individuals with the XXY constitution are outwardly males but have small testes and produce no spermatozoa. Those with the more abnormal and relatively rarer constitutions XXXXY and XXYY are typically mentally defective and in the latter case are hard to manage. Thus abnormal combinations generally result in an infertility on the one hand and an abnormal sexuality in the whole system, for either too little or too much of what is ordinarily good can be disastrous.
Very different kinds of abnormal development resulting from faulty chromosomal distribution are particularly observable in insects. The most common form in flies is an individual that is male on one side, female on the other, with a sharp line of demarcation. In other cases one-quarter of the body may be male and three-quarters female, or the head may be female and the rest of the body, male. These types are known as gynandromorphs, or sexual mosaics, and result from aberration in the distribution of the X chromosomes among the first cells to be formed during the early development of the embryo.