Many marine, beach, pond, and swamp plants have waterborne seeds, which are buoyant by being enclosed in corky fruits or air-containing fruits or both; examples of these plants include water plantain, yellow flag, sea kale, sea rocket, sea beet, and all species of Rhizophoraceae, a family of mangrove plants. Sea dispersal of the coconut palm has been well proved; the fibrous mesocarp of the fruit, a giant drupe, provides buoyancy. Once the nuts are ashore, the mesocarp also aids in the aboveground germination process by collecting rainwater; in addition, the endosperm has in its “milk” a provision for seedling establishment on beaches without much fresh water. A sea rocket species with seeds highly resistant to seawater is gaining a foothold on volcanic Surtsey Island, south of Iceland. Purple loosestrife, monkey flower, Aster tripolium, and Juncus species (rushes) are often transported by water in the seedling stage. Rainwash down mountain slopes may be important in tropical forests. A “splashcup mechanism,” common in fungi for spore dispersal, is suggested by the open fruit capsule with exposed small seeds in the pearlwort (Sagina) and mitrewort (Mitella). Hygrochasy, the opening of fruits in moist weather, is displayed by species of Mesembryanthemum, Sedum, and other plants of dry environments.

Self-dispersal

Best known in this category are the active ballists, which forcibly eject their seeds by means of various mechanisms. In the fruit of the dwarf mistletoe (Arceuthobium) of the western United States, a very high osmotic pressure (pressure accumulated by movement of water across cell membranes principally in only one direction) builds up that ultimately leads to a lateral blasting out of the seeds over distances of up to 15 metres (49 feet) with an initial velocity of about 95 km (60 miles) per hour. Squirting cucumber (Ecballium elaterium) also employs an osmotic mechanism. In Scotch broom and gorse, however, drying out of the already dead tissues in the two valves of the seed pod causes a tendency to warp, which, on hot summer days, culminates in an explosive and audible separation of these valves, with violent seed release. Such methods may be coupled with secondary dispersal mechanisms, mediated by ants in the case of Scotch broom and gorse or by birds and mammals, to which sticky seeds may adhere, in the case of Arceuthobium and squirting cucumber. Other active ballists are species of geranium, violet, wood sorrel, witch hazel, touch-me-not (Impatiens), and acanthus; probable champions are Bauhinia purpurea, with a distance of 15 metres, and the sandbox tree (Hura crepitans), with 14 metres. Barochory, the dispersal of seeds and fruits by gravity alone, is demonstrated by the heavy fruits of horse chestnut.

Creeping diaspores are found in grasses such as Avena sterilis and Aegilops ovata, the grains of which are provided with bristles capable of hygroscopic movements (coiling and flexing in response to changes in moisture). The mericarps (fruit fragments of a schizocarp) of storksbill (Erodium species), when moistened, bury themselves with a corkscrew motion by unwinding a multiple-barbed, beak-shaped appendage, which, in the dry state, was coiled.

Atelechory, the dispersal over a very limited distance only, represents a waste-avoiding defensive “strategy” that functions in further exploitation of an already occupied favourable site. This strategy is typical in old, nutrient-impoverished landscapes, such as those of southwestern Australia. The aim is often achieved by synaptospermy, the sticking together of several diaspores, which makes them less mobile, as in beet and spinach, and by geocarpy. Geocarpy is defined as either the production of fruits underground, as in the arum lilies Stylochiton and Biarum, in which the flowers are already subterranean, or the active burying of fruits by the mother plant, as in the peanut, Arachis hypogaea. In the American hog peanut (Amphicarpa bracteata), pods of a special type are buried by the plant and are cached by squirrels later on. Kenilworth ivy (Cymbalaria), which normally grows on stone or brick walls, stashes its fruits away in crevices after strikingly extending the flower stalks. Not surprisingly, geocarpy, like synaptospermy, is most often encountered in desert plants; however, it also occurs in violet species, in subterranean clover (Trifolium subterraneum)—even when it grows in France and England—and in begonias (Begonia hypogaea) of the African rainforest.