- Key People:
- Ernest Rutherford
- Enrico Fermi
- Marie Curie
- Henri Becquerel
- Otto Hahn
The processes separately introduced at the beginning of this section as beta-minus decay, beta-plus decay, and orbital electron capture can be appropriately treated together. They all are processes whereby neutrons and protons may transform to one another by weak interaction. In striking contrast to alpha decay, the electrons (minus or plus charged) emitted in beta-minus and beta-plus decay do not exhibit sharp, discrete energy spectra but have distributions of electron energies ranging from zero up to the maximum energy release, Qβ . Furthermore, measurements of heat released by beta emitters (most radiation stopped in surrounding material is converted into heat energy) show a substantial fraction of the energy, Qβ , is missing. These observations, along with other considerations involving the spins or angular momenta of nuclei and electrons, led Wolfgang Pauli to postulate the simultaneous emission of the neutrino (1931). The neutrino, as a light and uncharged particle with nearly no interaction with matter, was supposed to carry off the missing heat energy. Today, neutrino theory is well accepted with the elaboration that there are six kinds of neutrinos, the electron neutrino, mu neutrino, and tau neutrino and corresponding antineutrinos of each. The electron neutrinos are involved in nuclear beta-decay transformations, the mu neutrinos are encountered in decay of muons to electrons, and the tau neutrinos are produced when a massive lepton called a tau breaks down.
Although in general the more energetic the beta decay the shorter is its half-life, the rate relationships do not show the clear regularities of the alpha-decay dependence on energy and atomic number.
The first quantitative rate theory of beta decay was given by Enrico Fermi in 1934, and the essentials of this theory form the basis of modern theory. As an example, in the simplest beta-decay process, a free neutron decays into a proton, a negative electron, and an antineutrino: n → p + e− + . The weak interaction responsible for this process, in which there is a change of species (n to p) by a nucleon with creation of electron and antineutrino, is characterized in Fermi theory by a universal constant, g. The sharing of energy between electron and antineutrino is governed by statistical probability laws giving a probability factor for each particle proportional to the square of its linear momentum (defined by mass times velocity for speeds much less than the speed of light and by a more complicated, relativistic relation for faster speeds). The overall probability law from Fermi theory gives the probability per unit time per unit electron energy interval, P(W), as follows:
in which W is the electron energy in relativistic units (W = 1 + E/m0c2) and W0 is the maximum (W0 = 1 + Qβ/m0c2), m0 the rest mass of the electron, c the speed of light, and h Planck’s constant. This rate law expresses the neutron beta-decay spectrum in good agreement with experiment, the spectrum falling to zero at lowest energies by the factor W and falling to zero at the maximum energy by virtue of the factor (W0 − W)2.
In Fermi’s original formulation, the spins of an emitted beta and neutrino are opposing and so cancel to zero. Later work showed that neutron beta decay partly proceeds with the 1/2 ℏ spins of beta and neutrino adding to one unit of ℏ. The former process is known as Fermi decay (F) and the latter Gamow–Teller (GT) decay, after George Gamow and Edward Teller, the physicists who first proposed it. The interaction constants are determined to be in the ratio gGT2/gF2 = 1.4. Thus, g2 in equation (7) should be replaced by (gF2 + gGT2).
The scientific world was shaken in 1957 by the measurement in beta decay of maximum violation of the law of conservation of parity. The meaning of this nonconservation in the case of neutron beta decay considered above is that the preferred direction of electron emission is opposite to the direction of the neutron spin. By means of a magnetic field and low temperature it is possible to cause neutrons in cobalt-60 and other nuclei, or free neutrons, to have their spins set preferentially in the up direction perpendicular to the plane of the coil generating the magnetic field. The fact that beta decay prefers the down direction for spin means that the reflection of the experiment as seen in a mirror parallel to the coil represents an unphysical situation: conservation of parity, obeyed by most physical processes, demands that experiments with positions reversed by mirror reflection should also occur. Further consequences of parity violation in beta decay are that spins of emitted neutrinos and electrons are directed along the direction of flight, totally so for neutrinos and partially so by the ratio of electron speed to the speed of light for electrons.
The overall half-life for beta decay of the free neutron, measured as 12 minutes, may be related to the interaction constants g2 (equal to gF2 + gGT2) by integrating (summing) probability expression (7) over all possible electron energies from zero to the maximum. The result for the decay constant is
in which W0 is the maximum beta-particle energy in relativistic units (W0 = 1 + Qβ/m0c2), with m0 the rest mass of the electron, c the speed of light, and h Planck’s constant. The best g value from decay rates is approximately 10−49 erg per cubic centimetre. As may be noted from equation (8), there is a limiting fifth-power energy dependence for highest decay energies.
In the case of a decaying neutron not free but bound within a nucleus, the above formulas must be modified. First, as the nuclear charge Z increases, the relative probability of low-energy electron emission increases by virtue of the coulombic attraction. For positron emission, which is energetically impossible for free protons but can occur for bound protons in proton-rich nuclei, the nuclear coulomb charge suppresses lower energy positrons from the shape given by equation (7). This equation can be corrected by a factor F(Z,W) depending on the daughter atomic number Z and electron energy W. The factor can be calculated quantum mechanically. The coulomb charge also affects the overall rate expression (8) such that it can no longer be expressed as an algebraic function, but tables are available for analysis of beta decay rates. The rates are analyzed in terms of a function f(Z,Qβ) calculated by integration of equation (7) with correction factor F(Z,W).
Approximate expressions for the f functions usable for decay energies Q between 0.1 MeV and 10 MeV, in which Q is measured in MeV, and Z is the atomic number of the daughter nucleus, are as follows (the symbol ≈ means approximately equal to):
For electron capture, a much weaker dependence on energy is found:
The basic beta decay rate expression obeyed by the class of so-called superallowed transitions, including decay of the neutron and several light nuclei is
Like the ground-to-ground alpha transitions of even–even nuclei, the superallowed beta transitions obey the basic rate law, but most beta transitions go much more slowly. The extra retardation is explained in terms of mismatched orbitals of neutrons and protons involved in the transition. For the superallowed transitions the orbitals in initial and final states are almost the same. Most of them occur between mirror nuclei, with one more or less neutron than protons; i.e., beta-minus decay of hydrogen-3, electron capture of beryllium-7 and positron emission of carbon-11, oxygen-15, neon-19, . . . titanium-43.
The nuclear retardation of beta decay rates below those of the superallowed class may be expressed in a fundamental way by multiplying the right side of equation (9) by the square of a nuclear matrix element (a quantity of quantum mechanics), which may range from unity down to zero depending on the degree of mismatch of initial and final nuclear states of internal motion. A more usual way of expressing the nuclear factor of the beta rate is the log ft value, in which f refers to the function f(Z,Qβ). Because the half-life is inversely proportional to the decay constant λ, the product fβt1⁄2 will be a measure of (inversely proportional to) the square of the nuclear matrix element. For the log ft value, the beta half-life is taken in seconds, and the ordinary logarithm to the base 10 is used. The superallowed transitions have log ft values in the range of 3 to 3.5. Beta log ft values are known up to as large as ∼ 23 in the case of indium-115. There is some correlation of log ft values with spin changes between parent and daughter nucleons, the indium-115 decay involving a spin change of four, whereas the superallowed transitions all have spin changes of zero or one.
Gamma transition
The nuclear gamma transitions belong to the large class of electromagnetic transitions encompassing radio-frequency emission by antennas or rotating molecules, infrared emission by vibrating molecules or hot filaments, visible light, ultraviolet light, and X-ray emission by electronic jumps in atoms or molecules. The usual relations apply for connecting frequency ν, wavelength λ, and photon quantum energy E with speed of light c and Planck’s constant h; namely, λ = c/ν and E = hv. It is sometimes necessary to consider the momentum (p) of the photon given by p = E/c.
Classically, radiation accompanies any acceleration of electric charge. Quantum mechanically there is a probability of photon emission from higher to lower energy nuclear states, in which the internal state of motion involves acceleration of charge in the transition. Therefore, purely neutron orbital acceleration would carry no radiative contribution.
A great simplification in nuclear gamma transition rate theory is brought about by the circumstance that the nuclear diameters are always much smaller than the shortest wavelengths of gamma radiation in radioactivity—i.e., the nucleus is too small to be a good antenna for the radiation. The simplification is that nuclear gamma transitions can be classified according to multipolarity, or amount of spin angular momentum carried off by the radiation. One unit of angular momentum in the radiation is associated with dipole transitions (a dipole consists of two separated equal charges, plus and minus). If there is a change of nuclear parity, the transition is designated electric dipole (E1) and is analogous to the radiation of a linear half-wave dipole radio antenna. If there is no parity change, the transition is magnetic dipole (M1) and is analogous to the radiation of a full-wave loop antenna. With two units of angular momentum change, the transition is electric quadrupole (E2), analogous to a full-wave linear antenna of two dipoles out-of-phase, and magnetic quadrupole (M2), analogous to coaxial loop antennas driven out-of-phase. Higher multipolarity radiation also frequently occurs with radioactivity.
Transition rates are usually compared to the single-proton theoretical rate, or Weisskopf formula, named after the American physicist Victor Frederick Weisskopf, who developed it. The table gives the theoretical reference rate formulas in their dependence on nuclear mass number A and gamma-ray energy Eγ (in MeV).
| transition type | partial half-life tγ (seconds) | illustrative tγ values for A = 125, E = 0.1 MeV (seconds) |
|---|---|---|
| *The energies E are expressed in MeV. The nuclear radius parameter r0 has been taken as 1.3 fermis. It is to be noted that tγ is the partial half-life for γ emission only; the occurrence of internal conversion will always shorten the measured half-life. | ||
| E1 | 5.7 × 10−15 E −3 A−2/3 | 2 × 10−13 |
| E2 | 6.7 × 10−9 E −5 A−4/3 | 1 × 10−6 |
| E3 | 1.2 × 10−2 E −7 A−2 | 8 |
| E4 | 3.4 × 104 E −9 A−8/3 | 9 × 107 |
| E5 | 1.3 × 1011 E −11 A−10/3 | 1 × 1015 |
| M1 | 2.2 × 10−14 E −3 | 2 × 10−11 |
| M2 | 2.6 × 10−8 E −5 A−2/3 | 1 × 10−4 |
| M3 | 4.9 × 10−2 E −7 A−4/3 | 8 × 102 |
| M4 | 1.3 × 105 E −9 A−2 | 8 × 109 |
| M5 | 5.0 × 1011 E −11 A−8/3 | 1 × 1017 |
It is seen for the illustrative case of gamma energy 0.1 MeV and mass number 125 that there occurs an additional factor of 107 retardation with each higher multipole order. For a given multipole, magnetic radiation should be a factor of 100 or so slower than electric. These rate factors ensure that nuclear gamma transitions are nearly purely one multipole, the lowest permitted by the nuclear spin change. There are many exceptions, however; mixed M1–E2 transitions are common, because E2 transitions are often much faster than the Weisskopf formula gives and M1 transitions are generally slower. All E1 transitions encountered in radioactivity are much slower than the Weisskopf formula. The other higher multipolarities show some scatter in rates, ranging from agreement to considerable retardation. In most cases the retardations are well understood in terms of nuclear model calculations.
Though not literally a gamma transition, electric monopole (E0) transitions may appropriately be mentioned here. These may occur when there is no angular momentum change between initial and final nuclear states and no parity change. For spin-zero to spin-zero transitions, single gamma emission is strictly forbidden. The electric monopole transition occurs largely by the ejection of electrons from the orbital cloud in heavier elements and by positron–electron pair creation in the lighter elements.