The Earth system has undergone a general cooling trend for the past 50 million years, culminating in the development of permanent ice sheets in the Northern Hemisphere about 2.75 million years ago. These ice sheets expanded and contracted in a regular rhythm, with each glacial maximum separated from adjacent ones by 41,000 years (based on the cycle of axial tilt). As the ice sheets waxed and waned, global climate drifted steadily toward cooler conditions characterized by increasingly severe glaciations and increasingly cool interglacial phases. Beginning around 900,000 years ago, the glacial-interglacial cycles shifted frequency. Ever since, the glacial peaks have been 100,000 years apart, and the Earth system has spent more time in cool phases than before. The 41,000-year periodicity has continued, with smaller fluctuations superimposed on the 100,000-year cycle. In addition, a smaller, 23,000-year cycle has occurred through both the 41,000-year and 100,000-year cycles.

The 23,000-year and 41,000-year cycles are driven ultimately by two components of Earth’s orbital geometry: the equinoctial precession cycle (23,000 years) and the axial-tilt cycle (41,000 years). Although the third parameter of Earth’s orbit, eccentricity, varies on a 100,000-year cycle, its magnitude is insufficient to explain the 100,000-year cycles of glacial and interglacial periods of the past 900,000 years. The origin of the periodicity present in Earth’s eccentricity is an important question in current paleoclimate research.

Cenozoic climates

The Cenozoic Era—encompassing the past 66 million years, the time that has elapsed since the mass extinction event marking the end of the Cretaceous Period—has a broad range of climatic variation characterized by alternating intervals of global warming and cooling. Earth has experienced both extreme warmth and extreme cold during this period. These changes have been driven by tectonic forces, which have altered the positions and elevations of the continents as well as ocean passages and bathymetry. Feedbacks between different components of the Earth system (atmosphere, biosphere, lithosphere, cryosphere, and oceans in the hydrosphere) are being increasingly recognized as influences of global and regional climate. In particular, atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide have varied substantially during the Cenozoic for reasons that are poorly understood, though its fluctuation must have involved feedbacks between Earth’s spheres.

Orbital forcing is also evident in the Cenozoic, although, when compared on such a vast era-level timescale, orbital variations can be seen as oscillations against a slowly changing backdrop of lower-frequency climatic trends. Descriptions of the orbital variations have evolved according to the growing understanding of tectonic and biogeochemical changes. A pattern emerging from recent paleoclimatologic studies suggests that the climatic effects of eccentricity, precession, and axial tilt have been amplified during cool phases of the Cenozoic, whereas they have been dampened during warm phases.

The meteor impact that occurred at or very close to the end of the Cretaceous came at a time of global warming, which continued into the early Cenozoic. Tropical and subtropical flora and fauna occurred at high latitudes until at least 40 million years ago, and geochemical records of marine sediments have indicated the presence of warm oceans. The interval of maximum temperature occurred during the late Paleocene and early Eocene epochs (59.2 million to 41.2 million years ago). The highest global temperatures of the Cenozoic occurred during the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum (PETM), a short interval lasting approximately 100,000 years. Although the underlying causes are unclear, the onset of the PETM about 56 million years ago was rapid, occurring within a few thousand years, and ecological consequences were large, with widespread extinctions in both marine and terrestrial ecosystems. Sea surface and continental air temperatures increased by more than 5 °C (9 °F) during the transition into the PETM. Sea surface temperatures in the high-latitude Arctic may have been as warm as 23 °C (73 °F), comparable to modern subtropical and warm-temperate seas. Following the PETM, global temperatures declined to pre-PETM levels, but they gradually increased to near-PETM levels over the next few million years during a period known as the Eocene Optimum. This temperature maximum was followed by a steady decline in global temperatures toward the Eocene-Oligocene boundary, which occurred about 33.9 million years ago. These changes are well-represented in marine sediments and in paleontological records from the continents, where vegetation zones moved Equator-ward. Mechanisms underlying the cooling trend are under study, but it is most likely that tectonic movements played an important role. This period saw the gradual opening of the sea passage between Tasmania and Antarctica, followed by the opening of the Drake Passage between South America and Antarctica. The latter, which isolated Antarctica within a cold polar sea, produced global effects on atmospheric and oceanic circulation. Recent evidence suggests that decreasing atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide during this period may have initiated a steady and irreversible cooling trend over the next few million years.

A continental ice sheet developed in Antarctica during the Oligocene Epoch, persisting until a rapid warming event took place 27 million years ago. The late Oligocene and early to mid-Miocene epochs (28.4 million to 13.8 million years ago) were relatively warm, though not nearly as warm as the Eocene. Cooling resumed 15 million years ago, and the Antarctic Ice Sheet expanded again to cover much of the continent. The cooling trend continued through the late Miocene and accelerated into the early Pliocene Epoch, 5.3 million years ago. During this period the Northern Hemisphere remained ice-free, and paleobotanical studies show cool-temperate Pliocene floras at high latitudes on Greenland and the Arctic Archipelago. The Northern Hemisphere glaciation, which began 3.2 million years ago, was driven by tectonic events, such as the closing of the Panama seaway and the uplift of the Andes, the Tibetan Plateau, and western parts of North America. These tectonic events led to changes in the circulation of the oceans and the atmosphere, which in turn fostered the development of persistent ice at high northern latitudes. Small-magnitude variations in carbon dioxide concentrations, which had been relatively low since at least the mid-Oligocene (27.8 million years ago), are also thought to have contributed to this glaciation.

Phanerozoic climates

The Phanerozoic Eon (541 million years ago to the present), which includes the entire span of complex, multicellular life on Earth, has witnessed an extraordinary array of climatic states and transitions. The sheer antiquity of many of these regimes and events renders them difficult to understand in detail. However, a number of periods and transitions are well known, owing to good geological records and intense study by scientists. Furthermore, a coherent pattern of low-frequency climatic variation is emerging, in which the Earth system alternates between warm (“greenhouse”) phases and cool (“icehouse”) phases. The warm phases are characterized by high temperatures, high sea levels, and an absence of continental glaciers. Cool phases in turn are marked by low temperatures, low sea levels, and the presence of continental ice sheets, at least at high latitudes. Superimposed on these alternations are higher-frequency variations, where cool periods are embedded within greenhouse phases and warm periods are embedded within icehouse phases. For example, glaciers developed for a brief period (between 1 million and 10 million years) during the late Ordovician and early Silurian, in the middle of the early Paleozoic greenhouse phase (541 million to about 359 million years ago). Similarly, warm periods with glacial retreat occurred within the late Cenozoic cool period during the late Oligocene and early Miocene epochs.

The Earth system has been in an icehouse phase for the past 30 million to 35 million years, ever since the development of ice sheets on Antarctica. The previous major icehouse phase occurred between about 359 million and about 252 million years ago, during the Carboniferous and Permian periods of the late Paleozoic Era. Glacial sediments dating to this period have been identified in much of Africa as well as in the Arabian Peninsula, South America, Australia, India, and Antarctica. At the time, all these regions were part of Gondwana, a high-latitude supercontinent in the Southern Hemisphere. The glaciers atop Gondwana extended to at least 45° S latitude, similar to the latitude reached by Northern Hemisphere ice sheets during the Pleistocene. Some late Paleozoic glaciers extended even further Equator-ward—to 35° S. One of the most striking features of this time period are cyclothems, repeating sedimentary beds of alternating sandstone, shale, coal, and limestone. The great coal deposits of North America’s Appalachian region, the American Midwest, and northern Europe are interbedded in these cyclothems, which may represent repeated transgressions (producing limestone) and retreats (producing shales and coals) of ocean shorelines in response to orbital variations.

The two most prominent warm phases in Earth history occurred during the Mesozoic and early Cenozoic eras (approximately 252 million to 35 million years ago) and the early and mid-Paleozoic (approximately 500 million to about 359 million years ago). Climates of each of these greenhouse periods were distinct; continental positions and ocean bathymetry were very different, and terrestrial vegetation was absent from the continents until relatively late in the Paleozoic warm period. Both of these periods experienced substantial long-term climate variation and change; increasing evidence indicates brief glacial episodes during the mid-Mesozoic.

Understanding the mechanisms underlying icehouse-greenhouse dynamics is an important area of research, involving an interchange between geologic records and the modeling of the Earth system and its components. Two processes have been implicated as drivers of Phanerozoic climate change. First, tectonic forces caused changes in the positions and elevations of continents and the bathymetry of oceans and seas. Second, variations in greenhouse gases were also important drivers of climate, though at these long timescales they were largely controlled by tectonic processes, in which sinks and sources of greenhouse gases varied.

Climates of early Earth

The pre-Phanerozoic interval, also known as Precambrian time, comprises some 88 percent of the time elapsed since the origin of Earth. The pre-Phanerozoic is a poorly understood phase of Earth system history. Much of the sedimentary record of the atmosphere, oceans, biota, and crust of the early Earth has been obliterated by erosion, metamorphosis, and subduction. However, a number of pre-Phanerozoic records have been found in various parts of the world, mainly from the later portions of the period. Pre-Phanerozoic Earth system history is an extremely active area of research, in part because of its importance in understanding the origin and early evolution of life on Earth. Furthermore, the chemical composition of Earth’s atmosphere and oceans largely developed during this period, with living organisms playing an active role. Geologists, paleontologists, microbiologists, planetary geologists, atmospheric scientists, and geochemists are focusing intense efforts on understanding this period. Three areas of particular interest and debate are the “faint young Sun paradox,” the role of organisms in shaping Earth’s atmosphere, and the possibility that Earth went through one or more “snowball” phases of global glaciation.