The seventh pandemic in the 21st century
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- The Nemours Foundation - For Parents - Cholera
- Mayo Clinic - Cholera
- Frontiers - Advances in cholera research: from molecular biology to public health initiatives
- MSD Manual - Professional Version - Cholera
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention - Cholera - Vibrio cholerae infection
- National Center for Biotechnology Information - Cholera
- MedicineNet - Cholera
- Cleveland Clinic - Cholera
- National Organization for Rare Disorders - Cholera
- World Health Organisation - Cholera
- Key People:
- Robert Koch
- John Snow
- William Farr
- William Budd
While the incidence of cholera in developed countries decreased significantly in the late 1990s, the disease remained prevalent in Africa. In 1995, out of some 209,000 total cholera cases worldwide, roughly 72,000 cases occurred in Africa and 86,000 in South and North America. However, in 1998, out of about 293,000 total cases worldwide, there were roughly 212,000 cases in Africa but only 57,000 in the Americas. In the early 2000s many countries within Africa, such as Mozambique, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and Tanzania, experienced outbreaks that often involved more than 20,000 cases and several hundred deaths. During that time the disparity in the incidence of cholera in Africa relative to other parts of the world continued to grow. The persistence of the disease was attributed to poor water quality, poor hygiene, and poor sanitation—factors that stemmed from the lack of organized sanitation programs—and the lack of access to health care in many regions of Africa.
Zimbabwe cholera outbreak of 2008–09
Zimbabwe, located in southern Africa, experienced a severe epidemic of cholera from 2008 to 2009. The outbreak, which was fueled by the fragmented infrastructure of Zimbabwe’s health care system and by the unavailability of food and of clean drinking water, started in August 2008 in a district located south of the country’s capital city, Harare. Between August and December 2008 the disease spread quickly, reaching Harare and several surrounding districts and spreading throughout the east, west, and central Mashonaland provinces, the Midlands province, and the Manicaland province. By late April 2009 the epidemic affected more than 95 percent of the country’s districts, and some 96,700 cases and 4,200 deaths had been reported. It was suspected that a small epidemic that occurred in districts near Harare from January to April 2008 may have given rise to the epidemic that emerged in August, since inadequate health care services could have enabled undetected transmission of the bacteria to persist.
Economic collapse within Zimbabwe compounded the cholera epidemic of 2008–09. Because of economic inflation, several of the country’s hospitals were forced to close in late November 2008, as they could not afford to buy medicine to refill their depleted stocks. By early December stocks of water-purification chemicals had run out, causing many people to rely on unclean water. While the sanitary conditions declined in many affected areas, conditions were especially poor in Harare, where the failure of sewage systems led to the outflow of raw sewage into streets and rivers and the collapse of sanitary regulation led to the accumulation of refuse in public places. On December 4, 2008, the Zimbabwean government declared a national state of emergency and actively sought international aid. Organizations such as the WHO and the International Committee of the Red Cross worked to improve disease surveillance, to provide medical supplies, and to enlist doctors and sanitary engineers. These organizations also provided shipments of much-needed water and water-purification chemicals.
By late December 2008, despite the efforts of relief organizations, cholera had spread to all 10 of Zimbabwe’s provinces. The risk of infection and death from cholera was exacerbated by severe food shortages and the closure of numerous hospitals and clinics. These factors contributed to a dramatic rise in the cholera fatality rate in Zimbabwe, which reached 5.7 percent—surpassing considerably the 1 percent fatality rate typically associated with large-scale cholera epidemics. Fatality rates inflated to 50 percent in rural areas of Zimbabwe that were heavily affected by the lack of medical services. In March 2009, 30 different strains of cholera were isolated from water samples collected from regions across the country.
In addition to the spread of cholera within Zimbabwe, the disease reached nearby countries, including Zambia, South Africa, Botswana, and Mozambique. By late January 2009 some 6,000 cases of cholera had been reported in South Africa, nearly half of which occurred in Limpopo province, near the Zimbabwe border.
Haiti cholera outbreak of 2010–11
In October 2010, in the months following a devastating earthquake in Haiti, the El Tor biotype emerged in Haiti’s Artibonite province, where fecal matter had contaminated the Artibonite River, which was a major source of drinking water. By January 2011 the disease had spread across all Haiti’s provinces and had reached the Dominican Republic. By mid-October that year, health officials had recorded a total of 473,649 cases and 6,631 deaths. In a bulletin published about the same time by WHO and the Pan American Health Organization, health officials estimated that 500,000 people would be affected by the end of the year.
Prior to the 2010–11 outbreak, cholera had not been detected in Haiti for more than a century. Identification of the strain as El Tor suggested that the bacterium was likely introduced to the region from a distant location via human activity.