Third in importance for bond formation after size and ionization energy is the energy change accompanying the attachment of electrons to a neutral atom. This energy is expressed as the electron affinity, which is the energy released when an electron is attached to an atom of the element. In many cases, the electron affinity is positive, signifying that energy is indeed released when an electron attaches to an atom. Such is the case when the incoming electron enters a vacancy in the valence shell of the atom. Although it is repelled by the electrons already present, it is sufficiently close to the nucleus for there to be a net attraction. Hence, the energy of the electron is lower when it is a part of the atom than when it is not. However, if the incoming electron has to start a new shell because the orbitals of the neutral atom are full, then it remains so far from the nucleus and so strongly repelled by the electrons already present that there is a net repulsion, and energy must be supplied to attach the electron to form an anion. In such cases, the electron affinity is negative.
Here lies the second part of the overall reason why a noble gas configuration is the end of the road for the formation of ions—in this case anions. Once the noble gas configuration has been attained, there may be serious energy disadvantages in the attachment of additional electrons. Thus, a chlorine atom can accept one electron to complete its valence shell, and Cl− is a common species. An oxygen atom can accept two electrons to complete its shell, and O2− is also common. These remarks conceal certain difficulties, but they are broadly true and account for the formation of the anions characteristic of the elements located on the right in the periodic table.
Electron affinities vary through the periodic table, and their periodicity is more complex than that of ionization energies. Broadly speaking, however, electron affinities are largest close to the upper right of the periodic table near fluorine. (As indicated above, the closed-shell noble gases have lower electron affinities.)
In summary, the low ionization energies and low electron affinities of the elements on the lower left of the periodic table account for the readiness of their atoms to form cations. They also correlate, as discussed below, with the fact that these elements are metallic, for that property depends on the ready loss of electrons. On the other hand, the high ionization energies and high electron affinities of elements on the upper right of the periodic table (with the exception of the noble gases) account for their ready formation of anions (and for the fact that they are generally nonmetals, since that property is associated with the difficulty of removing electrons from atoms).
Electronegativity
This synoptic view of ion formation is summarized by the concept of electronegativity, χ. There are numerous definitions of electronegativity. Qualitatively, the electronegativity of an element is the ability of one of its atoms to attract electrons toward itself when it is part of a compound (this definition was originally proposed by the American chemist Linus Pauling). Such an ability is high if the ionization energy of the element is high (so that the atom is reluctant to give up electrons) and if its electron affinity is also high (for then it is energetically favourable for it to acquire electrons). It follows that atoms with high electronegativities are those in the upper right-hand corner of the periodic table, close to fluorine (but excluding the noble gases). Such elements are likely to form anions when they form compounds. Elements with low ionization energies (so that they readily give up electrons) and low electron affinities (so that they have little tendency to acquire electrons) have low electronegativities (i.e., they are electropositive) and occur at the lower left of the periodic table. Such elements are likely to form cations during compound formation. (The effect of electronegativity on the polarity of a bond is discussed below in the section The polarity of molecules.)
Emphasis has been placed on ion formation in this section, and hence it may appear that covalence was unduly neglected. However, the scene is now set for an introduction to the whole range of bonding types, and it will be explained how the atomic property of electronegativity helps to unify the discussion.
Bonds between atoms
It has been shown that, for reasons related to the energy requirements for electron removal or addition, only the electrons in valence shells play a significant role in the formation of bonds between atoms. Henceforth this article will concentrate on these electrons alone. Lewis introduced the conventions of representing valence electrons by dots arranged around the chemical symbol of the element, as in H· and Na·, and of discussing bond formation as the transfer of dots from one symbol to another. This seemingly simplistic device turns out to be very useful for establishing the characteristics of chemical bonds and will be examined in this section.
The formation of ionic bonds
Lewis formulation of an ionic bond
In Lewis terms, the formation of an ionic bond stems from the transfer of electrons from one atom to another. When such a transfer occurs, all the valence electrons on the more electropositive element (from one of the first three groups on the left in the periodic table) are removed to expose the core of the atom. The electrons so released are accepted into the empty orbitals of the valence shell of the more electronegative atom (typically from the groups immediately to the left of the noble gases); the valence shell is thereby filled. Thus, the formation of the ionic compound sodium chloride can be represented by the following process:
The formation of aluminum oxide (alumina) involves selecting enough aluminum and oxygen atoms to ensure that all the electrons released by the aluminum atoms (three from each one) are accommodated by oxygen atoms (each of which can accept two electrons):
(The numbers of atoms required to balance the electrons donated and accepted is indicated by the chemical formula Al2O3 for aluminum oxide.)
That the transfer of electrons represented by these diagrams leads to a lowering of energy can be checked by assessing the energies associated with them. There is more to the process than a straightforward consideration of ionization energy and electron affinity. The ionization energy of sodium is larger than the electron affinity of chlorine, so energy is required to remove an electron from a sodium atom and attach it to a chlorine atom. That is, at first sight it appears that the total energy of a Na+ ion and a Cl− ion is greater than that of a sodium atom and a chlorine atom. If that were the case, then it would be hard to understand how sodium chloride could be a stable species relative to a gas of sodium and chlorine atoms.
There are in fact two errors in such a simple approach. First, the argument has ignored the favourable energy of interaction between the cation and the anion. The net energy of formation of a Na+ ion and a Cl− ion is the sum of three terms. The first is the energy investment needed to ionize a sodium atom. The second is a somewhat smaller energy that is released when the electron from the sodium atom attaches to a chlorine atom. At this stage, the net energy change is positive, indicating a higher energy than for the two atoms. However, because there is an attraction between opposite charges, there is a further release of energy as a result of the interaction of the two ions. This additional favourable contribution to the energy varies with the separation of the ions and strengthens as the two ions approach one another. Thus, at large separations the neutral atoms have the lowest energy, but as the two atoms are brought together a point is reached at which the lowest total energy is obtained if an electron transfers from the sodium atom to the chlorine atom. At this distance, and at shorter distances, Na+Cl− is the lower-energy species.
The second feature omitted from the argument is that an ionic compound does not consist of an isolated cation and anion. An ionic compound is typically a solid formed from an array of alternating cations and anions. The packing of ions together and their electrostatic interactions with one another account for the typical features of ionic compounds—namely, their brittleness and high melting points. Moreover, when studying the stability of such compounds, one should more appropriately consider the energy changes associated with their formation from the elements in their standard state (such as solid metallic sodium and gaseous chlorine molecules) than from a gas of atoms of the elements.