The development of scientific archaeology in 19th-century Europe from the antiquarianism and treasure collecting of the previous three centuries was due to three things: a geological revolution, an antiquarian revolution, and the propagation of the doctrine of evolution. Geology was revolutionized in the early 19th century with the discovery and demonstration of the principles of uniformitarian stratigraphy (which determines the age of fossil remains by the stratum they occupy below the earth) by men like William Smith, Georges Cuvier, and Charles Lyell. Lyell, in his Principles of Geology (1830–33), popularized this new system and paved the way for the acceptance of the great antiquity of man. Charles Darwin regarded Lyell’s Principles as one of the two germinal works in the formation of his own ideas on evolution. Early stone tools had been identified in Europe since mid-16th century. That they were, however, older than 4004 bce, the date of man’s origin according to biblical chronology, was not recognized until late in the 18th century, when John Frere suggested a great age for artifacts found in Suffolk, England, based on their location in certain strata. The discoveries of Jacques Boucher de Perthes in the Somme Valley in France, and of William Pengelly in the caves of South Devon in England, were used to demonstrate the antiquity of man in 1859, the same year that saw the publication of Darwin’s revolutionary Origin of Species. Approximate dates for the Paleolithic Period (Old Stone Age) of the prehistoric past were thus established, although the expression “Palaeolithic” was not used until John Lubbock coined it in his book Pre-historic Times (1865).

Half a century before this, Scandinavian archaeologists had created a revolution in antiquarian thought by postulating, on archaeological grounds, successive technological stages in man’s past. C.J. Thomsen classified the material in the Copenhagen Museum, opened to the public in 1819, on the basis of three successive ages of Stone, Bronze, and Iron. His pupil and successor, J.J.A. Worsaae, showed the correctness of this museum arrangement by observed stratigraphy in the Danish peat bogs and barrows (funerary mounds). Low lake levels in Switzerland in the mid-1850s permitted the excavation of the prehistoric Swiss lake dwellings, and here again the theory of a succession of technological stages was confirmed.

Darwin’s Origin of Species implied a long past for man, and the acceptance of the idea of human evolution in the last four decades of the 19th century created a climate of thought in which archaeology flourished and that led to great advances in the unfolding of the full story of man’s development.

In his Pre-historic Times, Lubbock expanded the three-age system of Thomsen and Worsaae to a four-age system, dividing the Stone Age into Old and New periods (Paleolithic and Neolithic). In the last quarter of the 19th century remarkable Paleolithic discoveries were made in France and Spain; these included the discovery and authentication of actual works of sculpture and cave paintings from the Upper (later) Paleolithic Period (c. 30,000–c. 10,000 bce). When Marcellino de Sautuola discovered the cave paintings at Altamira, Spain (1875–80), most experts refused to believe they were Paleolithic; but after similar discoveries at Les Eyzies in France around 1900, they were accepted as such and were recognized as one of the most surprising and exciting archaeological discoveries. A succession of similar finds has continued in the 20th century. The most famous of these was at Lascaux, France, in 1940.

During the last quarter of the 19th century, Gen. A.H. Pitt-Rivers’ excavations of prehistoric and Roman sites at Cranborne Chase, Dorset, laid the foundations of modern scientific archaeological field technique, which was later developed and improved in England and Wales by men such as Sir Mortimer Wheeler and Sir Cyril Fox.

Developments in the 20th century and beyond

The 20th century saw the extension of archaeology outside the areas of the Near East, the Mediterranean, and Europe, to other parts of the world. In the early ’20s, excavations at Mohenjo-Daro and Harappā, in present Pakistan, revealed the existence of the prehistoric Indus civilization. In the late ’20s, excavations at An-yang in eastern China established the existence of a prehistoric Chinese culture that could be identified with the Shang dynasty of early Chinese records.

The Stone Age has been described and studied throughout the world; among the most sensational discoveries are those of L.S.B. Leakey, who found stone tools and skeletal remains of early man dating back 2,000,000 years in the Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania. Intensive work of great importance has brought to light early Neolithic sites at Jericho in Palestine; Hassuna, Iraq; Çatalhüyük, Turkey; and elsewhere in the Near East, establishing the origins of agriculture in that region.

Serious archaeological work began later in America than Europe, but as early as 1784 Thomas Jefferson had excavated mounds in Virginia and made careful stratigraphical observations. The 20th century saw a great increase in archaeological knowledge about prehistoric America: two startling advances were the discovery of the origin of domesticated crops (including maize) in Central America and of the Olmec civilization of Mexico (1000–300 bce)—the oldest of the New World civilizations and probably the parent of all the others.

The enormous growth of archaeological work has meant the establishment of archaeology as an academic discipline; few important universities anywhere in the world are now without professors and departments of archaeology. There are now a very large number of scholarly journals in the field, as well as a considerable body of popularized books and journals that attempt to bridge the gap between professional and layman.