Breeding systems
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Crossbreeding
Crossbreeding involves the mating of animals from two breeds. Normally, breeds are chosen that have complementary traits that will enhance the offsprings’ economic value. An example is the crossbreeding of Yorkshire and Duroc breeds of pigs. Yorkshires have acceptable rates of gain in muscle mass and produce large litters, and Durocs are very muscular and have other acceptable traits, so these breeds are complementary. Another example is Angus and Charolais beef cattle. Angus produce high-quality beef and Charolais are especially large, so crossbreeding produces an animal with acceptable quality and size.
The other consideration in crossbreeding is heterosis, or hybrid vigour, which is displayed when the offspring performance exceeds the average performance of the parent breeds. This is a common phenomenon in which increased size, growth rate, and fertility are displayed by crossbred offspring, especially when the breeds are more genetically dissimilar. Such increases generally do not increase in successive generations of crossbred stock, so purebred lines must be retained for crossbreeding and for continual improvement in the parent breeds. In general, there is more heterosis for traits with low heritability. In particular, heterosis is thought to be associated with the collective action of many genes having small effects individually but large effects cumulatively. Because of hybrid vigour, a high proportion of commercial pork and beef come from crossbred animals.
Inbreeding
Mating animals that are related causes inbreeding. Inbreeding is often described as “narrowing the genetic base” because the mating of related animals results in offspring that have more genes in common. Inbreeding is used to concentrate desirable traits. Mild inbreeding has been used in some breeds of dogs and has been extensively used in laboratory mice and rats. For example, mice have been bred to be highly sensitive to compounds that might be detrimental or useful to humans. These mice are highly inbred so that researchers can obtain the same response with replicated treatments.
Inbreeding is generally detrimental in domestic animals. Increased inbreeding is accompanied by reduced fertility, slower growth rates, greater susceptibility to disease, and higher mortality rates. As a result, producers try to avoid mating related animals. This is not always possible, though, when long-continued selection for the same traits is practiced within a small population, because parents of future generations are the best candidates from the last generation, and some inbreeding tends to accumulate. The rate of inbreeding can be reduced, but, if inbreeding depression becomes evident, some method of introducing more diverse genes will be needed. The most common method is some form of crossbreeding.
The genetic code (DNA) and immunogenetics
DNA
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is the genetic material that contains the instructions in each cell of organisms. DNA determines the genome, and thus the genetic code, which is a blueprint for development of all body organs and structures. The structure of DNA can be visualized as a spiral staircase. The handrails are made up of sugar and phosphate molecules, and the steps are composed of four nitrogenous bases: adenine, thymine, cytosine, and guanine. These bases are paired: adenine is paired with thymine, and cytosine is paired with guanine. The order of these four base pairs is the genetic code that determines the genotype of an individual. The DNA is arranged on chromosomes inside cells, with cells having two methods of dividing and replicating. In mitosis, a cell divides into two daughter cells such that each contains an exact copy of the original cell’s chromosomes. In meiosis, a germ cell’s chromosomes are duplicated before the cell undergoes two divisions to produce four gametes, or sex cells, each with half (male or female) of the original cell’s chromosomes. During the process of fertilization, male and female gametes from different organisms pair their chromosomes to form a zygote, which eventually becomes an adult.
Genetic progress in domestic animals has been made using quantitative methods to date. It would be very desirable to know the genes that control the many traits that have economic significance in domestic animals. This should make selection more accurate. Information from sequencing human genes, as well as those of other species, is being used to find chromosomal segments with high probabilities of coding genes in livestock. Another approach is to scan a chromosome segment and look for associations with economic traits. Several quantitative trait loci have been discovered that are or promise to be useful in livestock breeding. For example, an estrogen receptor in pigs is associated with increased litter size—on average, an increase of 0.6 to 2.0 pigs per litter, depending on the genetic background in which the gene is expressed. Other genes have been found that control the secretion of casein in cow’s milk. Genes are also known for growth hormone, and many others could be enumerated. With improvements in sequencing DNA, more genes will be discovered that affect economic traits—genes that will need to be tested in different genetic backgrounds and environments before they can be commercialized.
It is now much less expensive to sequence DNA, which has led to new methods of evaluating animals using large segments of 30,000–50,000 bases. With the use of these large segments of DNA, animals are evaluated without looking for markers for individual traits. This is intuitively an appealing approach because much more of the DNA can be evaluated; perhaps in the future the entire genome can be used to evaluate animals. This method of selection, called genomic selection, is now being applied to dairy cattle, but results are not yet available.