Our editors will review what you’ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article.
- Chemistry LibreTexts - Aldehydes and Ketones
- Michigan State University - Aldehydes and Ketones
- Khan Academy - Ketone naming
- Academia - Aldehydes and Ketones
- Al-Mustaqbal University - Aldehydes and Ketones
- CAMEO Chemicals - Aldehydes
- National Center for Biotechnology Information - PubMed Central - Environmental Aldehyde Sources and the Health Implications of Exposure
- Oregon Institute of Technology - Aldehydes and Ketones
- Related Topics:
- furfural
- formaldehyde
- benzaldehyde
- citral
- acetaldehyde
If an aldehyde possesses at least one hydrogen atom on the carbon atom adjacent to the carbonyl group, called the alpha (α) carbon, this hydrogen can migrate to the oxygen atom of the carbonyl group. The double bond then migrates to the α-carbon. As a result, a carbonyl compound with an α-hydrogen can exist in two isomeric forms, called tautomers. In the keto form, the hydrogen is bonded to the α-carbon, while in the enol form it is bonded to the carbonyl oxygen with the migration of the double bond.
The name enol is derived from the IUPAC designation of it as both an alkene (-ene) and an alcohol (-ol). Keto and enol isomers exist in equilibrium in which both tautomers are present but, in simple cases, the keto form is much more stable than the enol form. In acetaldehyde, for example, only about 6 of every 10 million molecules are in the enol form at any given time. Nevertheless, the equilibrium always exists, and every molecule of acetaldehyde (as well as any other aldehyde or ketone with an α-hydrogen) is converted to the enol form (and back again) several times per second. This is an important characteristic because a number of reactions of carbonyl compounds take place only through the enol forms. Certain carbonyl compounds have a much higher percentage of its molecules in the enol form, however.
Synthesis of aldehydes
Because aldehydes are important building blocks in organic chemistry, they are used to synthesize many other compounds, and there are also many ways to prepare them. Oxidation is among the principal methods. Primary alcohols can be oxidized to aldehydes (RCH2OH → RCHO, where R is an alkyl or aryl group). This is generally not easy to do, because most reagents that oxidize primary alcohols to aldehydes will oxidize the aldehyde further to a carboxylic acid. To produce aldehydes on an industrial scale, the primary alcohol can be passed over hot copper (Cu) or copper chromite (Cu[CrO2]2) catalyst, but this method is less useful on a smaller scale such as in chemistry laboratories. On a laboratory scale, a number of reagents have been used, most notably pyridinium chlorochromate, PCC.
A method for reducing carboxylic acids to aldehydes (RCOOH → RCHO) in one step would be useful, but no general technique has been devised for accomplishing this. However, acyl chlorides, RCOCl can be reduced to aldehydes by several reagents, including lithium tri-tert-butoxyaluminum hydride, Li+H―Al−(OC[CH3]3)3.
A formyl group (―CHO) can be put onto an aromatic ring by several methods (ArH → ArCHO). In one of the most common of these, called the Reimer-Tiemann reaction, phenols (ArOH) are converted to phenolic aldehydes by treatment with chloroform in basic solution. The ―CHO group usually goes into the position adjacent to the ―OH group.
Acetylene, which is an alkyne (a compound containing a carbon-carbon triple bond), reacts with water, in the presence of mercuric salts to yield acetaldehyde (CH3CHO).
In a process called hydroformylation, alkenes can be treated with carbon monoxide, (CO), hydrogen (H2), and a transition metal catalyst, most commonly cobalt (Co), rhodium (Rh), or ruthenium (Ru), to give aldehydes. Hydroformylation of propylene, for example, gives a mixture of butanal and 2-methylpropanal.
Hydroformylation is more important in commercial applications (where it is known as the oxo process) than in laboratory syntheses. Oxo aldehydes are of little importance themselves as final products. Rather, they are reduced to alcohols or oxidized to carboxylic acids. Oxo alcohols are used as raw materials for the synthesis of detergents and textile fibres. Oxo carboxylic acids are converted to esters and used as industrial and laboratory solvents.
Principal reactions of aldehydes
Aldehydes are important starting materials and intermediates in organic synthesis, because they undergo a wide variety of reactions and are readily available by many synthetic methods. The reactivity of these compounds arises largely through two features of their structures: the polarity of the carbonyl group and the acidity of any α-hydrogens that are present.
Aldehydes are polar molecules, and many reagents seek atoms with a deficiency of electrons. Such reagents are called nucleophiles, meaning nucleus-loving. A nucleophile has electrons that it can share with a positively-charged centre to form a new covalent bond. Many reactions of carbonyl compounds begin with an attack of a nucleophile (abbreviated as Nu−) at the carbon atom of a carbonyl group, followed by combination of the now-negatively charged oxygen with a positive hydrogen ion.
Under acidic conditions this sequence can be reversed, with the positive hydrogen ion adding to the carbonyl oxygen first and then the nucleophile attacking the carbonyl carbon. In some cases the reaction ends with this step, but in many other cases there are one or more subsequent steps, the most common being the loss of water. The newly formed ―OH group leaves together with a hydrogen from an adjoining atom. The result is formation of a double bond between the carbon and the nucleophile. If the nucleophile added to the carbonyl group is a sulfur atom, for example, then loss of water gives a C=S bond.
Because of tautomerism, the carbon atom adjacent to the carbonyl group is also susceptible to attack if that carbon atom possesses a hydrogen atom (an α-hydrogen); many reactions of such carbonyl compounds involve replacement of the α-hydrogen.