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Between the Caelian and the Esquiline, the end of the Forum valley is filled by the Colosseum and the Arch of Constantine, with the Palatine edging down from the north. The Colosseum (c. 70–82 ce) that replaced Nero’s ornamental lake is more correctly called the Flavian Amphitheatre, after the Flavian dynasty of emperors. It was begun by Vespasian and inaugurated by Titus in 80 ce. The oval stadium measures about one-third of a mile (one-half of a kilometre) around, with external dimensions of 620 by 513 feet (190 by 155 metres). The approximately 160-foot (48-metre) facade has three superimposed series of 80 arches and an attic story. The attached columns follow the order applied on the Theatre of Marcellus (13 bce): sturdy, unadorned Doric on the ground floor, more elegant Ionic next, and luxuriant Corinthian on top. The attic story bore corbels supporting masts from which royal sailors manipulated awnings to protect the 50,000 seats from the sun during the gladiatorial contests, combats with wild animals, sham battles, and, when the arena was flooded, naval displays. The main structural framework and facade are travertine, the secondary walls of volcanic tufa, the inner bowl and the arcade vaults of concrete. Until Pius VIII (reigned 1829–30) began conserving what was left, it had been a convenient quarry for 1,000 years.
The nearby Arch of Constantine was erected hastily to celebrate Constantine I’s victory over Maxentius in 312. Almost all the sculpture on this splendid arch was snatched from earlier monuments: a battle frieze from the forum of Trajan, a series of Hadrianic roundels, and eight panels from a Marcus Aurelius monument.
The river lands
Along a 1.5-mile (2.5-km) stretch of the Tiber, around a big bend in its course, lie all the historic quarters of the river plain. On the right (west) bank are the Palazzo di Giustizia (Palace of Justice; built 1889–1910), the Castel Sant’Angelo (Hadrian’s Tomb), the entrance to Vatican City, and the Trastevere district. On the left (east) bank are the Forum Boarium, Forum Holitorium, Circus Flaminius, and Campus Martius.
At the bottom of the bend is Tiber Island. The island, 1,100 feet (335 metres) long and less than 330 feet (100 metres) wide at its widest, has been a place of healing since the Temple of Asclepius was erected after the plague of 291 bce; the largest building there is the Fatebenefratelli Hospital (also called the Hospital of San Giovanni di Dio). Facing the hospital is another of Rome’s towered medieval family fortresses, this one built by the Pierleoni.
Several of the bridges along this part of the Tiber are of special interest. The Ponte Sant’Angelo is in the main the ancient Pons Aelius, built about the same time as Hadrian’s Tomb, which stands at one end of the bridge. Gian Lorenzo Bernini was asked to add angels to the Ponte Sant’Angelo in the 17th century. The Ponte Cestio, often rebuilt since the 1st century bce, leads from Tiber Island to Trastevere, on the west bank, while the Ponte Fabricio (62 bce), the oldest in Rome, links the island to the shore below the Capitoline, on the east bank. Just downstream from the island are the remains of the Ponte Rotto (“Broken Bridge”) of the 2nd century bce and two bridges farther along. One of these, the modern Ponte Sublicio, is named for the wooden bridge defended on this part of the river by the legendary Roman hero Horatius and his comrades.
Castel Sant’Angelo
In 135 ce the emperor Hadrian began his tomb; a towering cylinder about 65 feet (20 metres) high on a square base, it was in size and form a typical imperial mausoleum. In 271 it was incorporated into the Aurelian Wall and became a key fortress in the defense of Rome. In the 6th century St. Gregory I, leading a procession to pray for the end to a plague, allegedly had a vision of the archangel Michael atop the tomb. The epidemic ceased, and the tomb-citadel became known as the Castel Sant’Angelo (Castle of the Holy Angel). In time it became a papal castle, with richly furnished and frescoed rooms, loggias for the view, a siege store of 5,800 gallons (22,000 litres) of oil and 770,000 pounds (350,000 kg) of grain, a centrally heated bathroom, a prison that incarcerated the artist Benvenuto Cellini, among others, and a still-intact fortified passage from the Vatican to carry the pope to refuge there. It is now a state museum with an arboured terrace.
Trastevere
The Trastevere (“Across the Tiber”) district, long the home of powerful Roman families, features palaces built during the Renaissance (e.g., the Villa Farnesina) and later (e.g., the 18th-century Palazzo Corsini). Most of the streets are still narrow and without sidewalks. Every 100 paces or so the haphazard cobbled lanes open upon some surprising small piazza with a palace, a church, a cloister, or a group of cafés. In the later 20th century, Trastevere took on the characteristics of a rich bohemian neighbourhood with a high percentage of foreign residents.
Some authorities claim Santa Maria in Trastevere as the oldest church in Rome. It is said that Severus Alexander (reigned 222–235) permitted Christians to gather at this site under the leadership of the pope St. Calixtus I, and it is recorded that the pope St. Julius I either raised or rebuilt a church there in 341–352. Today’s church is largely 12th-century Romanesque, with a beguiling mosaic facade.
The lower east bank
On the shore by the Ponte Rotto is the site of the earliest cattle market (Forum Boarium) and vegetable market (Forum Holitorium), girded with temples, of which two remain: an elegant circular marble structure of the 1st century bce and a nicely proportioned rectangular Ionic building, perhaps a few decades older. Their dedications are disputed—save that they are not, as they are popularly called, temples of Vesta and of Fortuna Virilis. In the 6th century the church of Santa Maria in Cosmedin was built into the antique grain-commission offices. Some of the Forum Boarium columns can still be seen on the interior of the church, and one of its drain lids, fixed to the outer wall, was carved to represent a face with a gaping mouth. This Classical manhole cover became the dreaded Bocca della Verità (“Mouth of Truth”), which allegedly would crunch down upon the hand of anyone telling a lie.
Nearby is the Theatre of Marcellus, begun by Julius Caesar and completed in 13 bce by Augustus, who named it for a nephew. It owes its preservation to its conversion into a fortress for one of the quarrelsome clans of the Middle Ages. Converted into a palace for the Orsini family in the 16th century, it remains private property. The Classical orders of the facade, adopted for the Colosseum, became the model for Renaissance architects.
From there northward and inland as far as the Via Flaminia (the modern Corso), the river plain was a vast plantation of temples, baths, and sports grounds until the Middle Ages, when the remaining Romans took up residence there. The portion closest to Tiber Island was once a major republican racing and sports ground, the Circus Flaminius (220 bce), which in the 16th century became the Jewish ghetto. For many years the neighbourhood retained a Jewish flavour, but eventually it became ripe for conversion to luxurious flats. Nearby, the Largo Argentina, excavated 1926–29, contains four small temples of the 1st and 2nd centuries bce.
Also in the area, a crescent of buildings between the Piazza del Biscione and the Piazza dei Satiri takes its curved shape from having been built into and around Pompey’s Theatre, the first stone theatre building in Rome. Inspired by the Greek theatre of Mytilene, in which Pompey the Great had been so spectacularly entertained, it had a portico of 100 columns that was equipped to be a community centre almost as much as the baths. The Senate met there on the Ides of March in 44 bce, when Julius Caesar was stabbed 23 times and fell at the foot of Pompey’s statue. For almost 400 years, a piece of sculpture unearthed nearby in 1550 and deposited in the Palazzo Spada was erroneously believed to be the Pompey statue. A part of the theatre was fortified by the Orsini family in the 12th century and later converted into the Palazzo Righetti, or Pio.