Mountain soils in the Rockies are poorly developed, being extremely thin and young and too deficient in nutrients for most types of agriculture. High-valley soils are sometimes suitable for irrigation, depending on texture, steepness of slopes, length of snow cover, and the presence of trace elements (e.g., selenium) that limit suitability for crop cultivation. Rangeland grazing is a more common pursuit. Soils of the Colorado Plateau also are generally shallow and stony, and they contain a high percentage of salts. In some locales, they can be made fertile if sufficient water is available to flush excess salts.

Climate

Along the great north-south extent of the mountains, the climate of the Rockies extends from the northern fringe of the subtropical zone in the far south to the Arctic in the far north. In the south, however, the continentality and high elevation of the mountains tend to reduce the impact of latitude. Two vertical zones prevail throughout much of the range. The lower is characterized as cool temperate, with cold winters and relatively cool summers. This zone occurs between elevations of 7,000 (2,100 metres) and 10,000 feet (3,000 metres) in the south, with upper and lower limits decreasing proportionally with increasing latitude. The higher zone is alpine and tundralike in character, with severe winter conditions and short, cold summers; in the south the highest peaks may remain snow-covered until August, while in the north many of the high valleys sustain permanent glaciers.

Precipitation generally increases from south to north, with the north receiving about three times that of the south. In the south the climate tends to be dry, especially in the rain-shadow valleys. The San Luis Valley in Colorado, for example, has a mountain-desert climate and is one of the driest areas of the Rockies. Much of the total annual precipitation in the south falls as snow in winter, although characteristic of the summer are local, sometimes violent, afternoon thunderstorms. The Northern Rockies tend to receive precipitation more evenly throughout the year from Pacific cyclonic storms. Almost everywhere in the Rockies the growing season is short; some places are susceptible to frosts even in summer.

Plant life

The plant communities of the Rockies vary markedly according to elevation, latitude, and exposure. On the eastern slopes in Colorado and New Mexico, strong winter winds off the arid plains stunt and deform the scattered cedars and piñon pines. The lower elevations at this end of the system are predominantly treeless, except along watercourses, where cottonwoods and other broad-leaved, deciduous species cluster. Sagebrush occurs in valleys and basins as far north as southern Alberta.

Trees of the middle-elevation montane forest include aspen, yellow pine, piñon pine, and Douglas fir. The subalpine forests comprise western hemlock, lodgepole pine, western red cedar, white spruce, and Engelmann spruce. The tree-line elevation descends as latitude increases, and alpine tundra, characterized by low flowering plants, spans nearly the full length of the range. So-called elfin woodland, consisting primarily of dwarfed willows, occurs in the most northerly mountains. The myriad wildflowers of the forests and high meadows include columbine, bunchberry, larkspur, gentian, and Indian paintbrush.

Animal life

The fauna of the Rockies is varied and abundant. Among the large mammals emblematic of the rugged backcountry are the black bear, grizzly bear, mountain lion, and wolverine. Bighorn sheep and mountain goats inhabit the high crags in summer and migrate to the lower slopes for the winter months. Members of the deer family, such as the caribou, elk (wapiti), mule deer, and white-tailed deer, also migrate vertically between alpine meadows and subalpine forest cover; the solitary moose frequents northern lakes, streams, and marshy areas, feeding on willow foliage and aquatic plants. Yellowstone National Park in Wyoming is home to one of the largest herds of bison in North America. Wild horses and burros inhabit the surrounding plains, while coyotes roam the lower valleys and along roads and rail routes. Wolves, brought to near extinction by human predation, remain rare but have resurged since 1970 as their importance in the wilderness ecosystem has come to be appreciated. Smaller mammals of the lower elevations include the least chipmunk, red squirrel, Columbian ground squirrel, black-footed ferret, and marmot. The pika dwells on talus slopes, and the prairie dog inhabits the drier valleys and plateaus. Wildlife of the arid southern mountains comprises the pronghorn, jackrabbit, peccary, rattlesnake, and other desert species. Beavers and river otters can be found in watercourses throughout the region. Amphibians include several species of frogs, toads, and salamanders that are indigenous to the region.

Birdlife is comparably diverse. In summer such raptors as the bald eagle, golden eagle, osprey, peregrine falcon, and turkey vulture nest throughout the range. Several owl species are found, including the great horned owl. Woodland and meadow birds include species of grouse (ruffed, sage, spruce, and blue), ptarmigan, wild turkey, ring-necked pheasant, Clark’s nutcracker, gray jay, and Steller’s jay. Among wading birds are species of egret, crane, great blue heron, curlew, and avocet. An abundance of waterfowl—such as teal, snipe, numerous duck species, and the endangered trumpeter swan—spend the warm season on mountain lakes. Canada geese and white pelicans also spend a portion of the year in the region. The numerous hot springs of the Rockies provide a winter haven for many birds that would otherwise migrate southward.

The rainbow trout, while perhaps the most celebrated fish of the region, is largely introduced from California. The arctic grayling is a prominent denizen of high northern lakes.