Distinctive features
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The Moon is a spherical rocky body, probably with a small metallic core, revolving around Earth in a slightly eccentric orbit at a mean distance of about 384,000 km (238,600 miles). Its equatorial radius is 1,738 km (1,080 miles), and its shape is slightly flattened in such a way that it bulges a little in the direction of Earth. Its mass distribution is not uniform—the center of mass is displaced about 2 km (1.2 miles) toward Earth relative to the center of the lunar sphere, and it also has surface mass concentrations, called mascons for short, that cause the Moon’s gravitational field to increase over local areas. The Moon has no global magnetic field like that of Earth, but some of its surface rocks have remanent magnetism, which indicates one or more periods of magnetic activity in the past. The Moon presently has very slight seismic activity and little heat flow from the interior, indications that most internal activity ceased long ago.
Scientists now believe that more than four billion years ago the Moon was subject to violent heating—probably from its formation—which resulted in its differentiation, or chemical separation, into a less dense crust and a more dense underlying mantle. This was followed hundreds of millions of years later by a second episode of heating—this time from internal radioactivity—which resulted in volcanic outpourings of lava. The Moon’s mean density is 3.34 grams per cubic cm, close to that of Earth’s mantle. Because of the Moon’s small size and mass, its surface gravity is only about one-sixth of the planet’s; it retains so little atmosphere that the molecules of any gases present on the surface move without collision. In the absence of an atmospheric shield to protect the surface from bombardment, countless bodies ranging in size from asteroids to tiny particles have struck and cratered the Moon. This has formed a debris layer, or regolith, consisting of rock fragments of all sizes down to the finest dust. In the ancient past the largest impacts made great basins, some of which were later partly filled by the enormous lava floods. These great dark plains, called maria (singular mare [Latin: “sea”]), are clearly visible to the naked eye from Earth. The dark maria and the lighter highlands, whose unchanging patterns many people recognize as the “man in the moon,” constitute the two main kinds of lunar territory. The mascons are regions where particularly dense lavas rose up from the mantle and flooded into basins. Lunar mountains, located mostly along the rims of ancient basins, are tall but not steep or sharp-peaked, because all lunar landforms have been eroded by the unending rain of impacts..
Principal characteristics of the Earth-Moon system
In addition to its nearness to Earth, the Moon is relatively massive compared with the planet—the ratio of their masses is much larger than those of other natural satellites to the planets that they orbit. The Moon and Earth consequently exert a strong gravitational influence on each other, forming a system having distinct properties and behaviors of its own.
Although the Moon is commonly described as orbiting Earth, it is more accurate to say that the two bodies orbit each other about a common center of mass. Called the barycenter, this point lies inside Earth about 4,700 km (2,900 miles) from its center. Also more accurately, it is the barycenter, rather than the center of Earth, that follows an elliptical path around the Sun in accord with Kepler’s laws of planetary motion. The orbital geometry of the Moon, Earth, and the Sun gives rise to the Moon’s phases and to the phenomena of lunar and solar eclipses.
The Moon displays eight phases: new, waxing crescent, first quarter, waxing gibbous, full, waning gibbous, last quarter, and waning crescent. New moon occurs when the Moon is between Earth and the Sun, and thus the side of the Moon that is in shadow faces Earth. Full moon occurs when the Moon is on the opposite side of Earth from the Sun, and thus the side of the Moon that is illuminated faces Earth. First and last quarter, in which half the Moon appears illuminated, occur when the Moon is at a right angle with respect to the Sun when viewed from Earth. The waxing and waning crescent phases occur when about one-fourth of the Moon is illuminated, and the waxing and waning gibbous phases occur when about three-fourths of the Moon is illuminated. (Earth, as seen from the Moon, shows the same phases in opposite order—e.g., Earth is full when the Moon is new.)
From the perspective of a person on Earth, a solar eclipse happens when the Moon comes between the Sun and Earth, and a lunar eclipse happens when the Moon moves into the shadow of Earth cast by the Sun. Solar eclipses occur at new moon, and lunar eclipses occur at full moon. Eclipses do not occur every month, because the plane of the Moon’s orbit is inclined to that of Earth’s orbit around the Sun (the ecliptic) by about 5°. Therefore, at most new and full moons, Earth, the Sun, and the Moon are not in a straight line.
The distance between the Moon and Earth varies rather widely because of the combined gravity of Earth, the Sun, and the planets. For example, in the last three decades of the 20th century, the Moon’s apogee—the farthest distance that it travels from Earth in a revolution—ranged between about 404,000 and 406,700 km (251,000 and 252,700 miles), while its perigee—the closest that it comes to Earth—ranged between about 356,500 and 370,400 km (221,500 and 230,200 miles). Tidal interactions, the cyclic deformations in each body caused by the gravitational attraction of the other, have braked the Moon’s spin such that it now rotates at the same rate as it revolves around Earth and thus always keeps the same side facing the planet. As discovered by the Italian-born French astronomer Gian Domenico Cassini in 1692, the Moon’s spin axis precesses with respect to its orbital plane—i.e., its orientation changes slowly over time, tracing out a circular path. (For the empirical rules that Cassini formulated about the Moon’s motion, see Cassini’s laws.)
In accord with Kepler’s second law, the eccentricity of the Moon’s orbit results in its traveling faster in that part of its orbit nearer Earth and slower in the part farther away. Combined with the Moon’s constant spin rate, these changes in speed give rise to an apparent oscillation, or libration, which over time allows an observer on Earth to see more than half of the lunar surface. In addition to this apparent turning motion, the Moon actually does rock slightly to and fro in both longitude and latitude, and the observer’s vantage point moves with Earth’s rotation. As a result of all these motions, more than 59 percent of the lunar surface can be seen at one time or another from Earth.
The orbital eccentricity also affects solar eclipses, in which the Moon passes between the Sun and Earth, casting a moving shadow across Earth’s sunlit surface. If a solar eclipse occurs when the Moon is near perigee, observers along the path of the Moon’s dark inner shadow (umbra) see a total eclipse. If the Moon is near apogee, it does not quite cover the Sun; the resulting eclipse is annular, and observers can see a thin ring of the solar disk around the Moon’s silhouette.
The Moon and Earth presently orbit the barycenter in 27.322 days, the sidereal month, or sidereal revolution period of the Moon. Because the whole system is moving around the Sun once per year, the angle of illumination changes about one degree per day, so that the time from one full moon to the next is 29.531 days, the synodic month, or synodic revolution period of the Moon. As a result, the Moon’s terminator—the dividing line between dayside and nightside—moves once around the Moon in this synodic period, exposing most locations to alternating periods of sunlight and darkness each nearly 15 Earth days long. The sidereal and synodic periods are slowly changing with time because of tidal interactions. Although tidal friction is slowing Earth’s rotation, conservation of momentum dictates that the angular momentum of the Earth-Moon system remain constant. Consequently, the Moon is slowly receding from Earth, with the result that both the day and the month are getting longer. Extending this relationship back into the past, both periods must have been significantly shorter hundreds of millions of years ago—a hypothesis confirmed from measurements of the daily and tide-related growth rings of fossil corals.
Because the Moon’s spin axis is almost perpendicular to the plane of the ecliptic (the plane of Earth’s orbit around the Sun)—inclined only 11/2° from the vertical—the Moon has no seasons. Sunlight is always nearly horizontal at the lunar poles, which results in permanently cold and dark environments at the bottoms of deep craters.