Malaya

Except for Malacca, Western influence was negligible in Malaya and northern Borneo until the late 18th century, when Britain became interested in the area. The British sought a source for goods to be sold in China, and in 1786 the British East India Company acquired the island of Penang (Pulau Pinang), off Malaya’s northwest coast, from the sultan of Kedah. The island soon became a major trading entrepôt with a chiefly Chinese population. British representative Sir Stamford Raffles occupied the island of Singapore off the southern tip of the peninsula in 1819 and acquired trading rights in 1824; a strategic location at the southern end of the Strait of Malacca and a fine harbour made Singapore the centre for Britain’s economic and political thrust in the peninsula. The British attracted Chinese immigrants to the sparsely populated island, and soon the mainly Chinese port became the region’s dominant city and a major base for Chinese economic activity in Southeast Asia. By then the predominant industrial capitalist power in Europe, Britain next obtained Malacca from the Dutch in 1824 and thereafter governed the three major ports of the Strait of Malacca—Penang, Malacca, and Singapore—which collectively were called the Straits Settlements. The British Colonial Office took direct control in 1867.

With the opening in 1869 of the Suez Canal, which provided a dramatically shorter maritime route between Europe and Southeast Asia, the full effect of European technological development swept over the region. The feuding Malay states were little prepared for the political ramifications of increased European commercial activity, with the exception of Johor, which was led by the strong, shrewd, and progressive sultan Abu Bakar. The other state administrations generally were weak and failed to cope with their mounting problems, including the steady immigration of Chinese. By the early 19th century the Chinese—who were being driven to emigrate by increasing poverty and instability in their homeland—began settling in large numbers in the sultanates along the peninsula’s west coast, where they cooperated with local Malay rulers to mine tin. The Chinese organized themselves into tightly knit communities and formed alliances with competing Malay chiefs, and Chinese factions fought wars with each other for control of minerals. Chinese settlers also established towns such as Kuala Lumpur and Ipoh, which later grew into major cities. The Chinese and Malays increasingly became entrenched in an inadequately integrated sociopolitical structure that continually generated friction between the two communities.

British investors were soon attracted to Malaya’s potential mineral wealth, but they were concerned about the political unrest. As a result, by the 1870s local British officials began to intervene in the internal affairs of various Malayan sultanates—establishing political influence (sometimes by force or the threat of force) through a system of British residents (advisers). Initial intervention was crude and incompetent; the first British resident to Perak was murdered by Malays outraged by his assertive actions. Gradually, the British refined their techniques and appointed more-able representatives; notable among these was Sir Frank Swettenham, who in 1896 became the first resident-general of a Malay federation of Perak, Selangor, Negeri Sembilan, and Pahang, with Kuala Lumpur as the capital. By 1909 the British had pressured Siam (now Thailand) into transferring sovereignty over the northern Malay states of Kedah, Terengganu, Kelantan, and Perlis; Johor was compelled to accept a British resident in 1914. These five sultanates remained outside the Malay federation, however. Britain had now achieved formal or informal colonial control over nine sultanates, but it pledged not to interfere in matters of religion, customs, or the symbolic political role of the sultans. The various states kept their separate identities but were increasingly integrated to form British Malaya.

Sarawak

Sarawak also entered a new historical era when the English adventurer James (later Sir James) Brooke helped the sultan of Brunei suppress a local revolt by several Iban groups that (theoretically) were under the sultanate’s control. In gratitude, the sultan of Brunei appointed Brooke raja (governor) of the Sarawak River basin in 1841. Brooke inaugurated not only a new form of imperial endeavour but also a century of rule by successive generations of a remarkable English family—a dynasty known as the Brooke Raj. As traditional Bornean rulers, generally benevolent autocrats, and cautious modernizers, the Brookes viewed themselves as protectors of Sarawak’s people. James Brooke spent the years before his death in 1868 consolidating his control of surrounding districts and defending his government against various challenges. Sarawak acquired the status of an independent state under British protection during the reign of its second raja, Charles Brooke (nephew of James Brooke). Relations with Britain, however, were often strained, chiefly because of a consistent Brooke policy of incorporating territory at the expense of the declining Brunei sultanate, which also became a British protectorate in the late 19th century. The present boundaries of Sarawak were achieved by 1906.

North Borneo

Northeastern Borneo, the territory that is now Sabah, was the last area to be brought under British control. In the early 1700s Brunei transferred its claims over much of the region to the sultan of Sulu, who ruled from the Sulu Archipelago (now part of the Philippines) to the east. Except in the far northeast, actual Sulu power remained limited. Occasional local resistance to Brunei or Sulu influence, as well as extensive coastal raiding and confusion of suzerainty, invited Western interest beginning in the 18th century. Despite short-lived American activity in the 1860s, British power proved most decisive. By 1846 the British had already acquired the offshore island of Labuan from Brunei. They gained a toehold in northeastern Borneo proper in 1872, when British merchant William Cowie founded an east-coast settlement at Sandakan, on lease from Sulu. Having obtained rights to much of the territory by 1881, the British launched the British North Borneo Company, which, based in Sandakan, ruled the British protectorate—as North Borneo—until 1941. The company operated the state in the interest of its shareholders but was only moderately prosperous, owing to high overhead and poor management; its 60 years of rule, however, established the economic, administrative, and political framework of contemporary Sabah.