When Constantinople was captured, it was almost deserted. Mehmed II began to repeople it by transferring to it populations from other conquered areas such as the Peloponnese, Salonika (modern Thessaloníki), and the Greek islands. By about 1480 the population rose to between 60,000 and 70,000. Hagia Sophia and other Byzantine churches were transformed into mosques. The Greek patriarchate was retained, but moved to the Church of the Pammakaristos Virgin (Mosque of Fethiye), later to find a permanent home in the Fener (Phanar) quarter. The sultan built the Old Seraglio (Eski Saray), now destroyed, on the site occupied at present by the university, and a little later the Topkapı Palace (Seraglio), which is still in existence; he also built the Eyüp Mosque at the head of the Golden Horn and the Mosque of the Fatih on the site of the Basilica of the Holy Apostles. The capital of the Ottoman Empire was transferred to Constantinople from Adrianople (Edirne) in 1457.

After Mehmed II, Istanbul underwent a long period of peaceful growth, interrupted only by natural disasters—earthquakes, fires, and pestilences. The sultans and their ministers devoted themselves to the building of fountains, mosques, palaces, and charitable foundations so that the aspect of the city was soon completely transformed. The most brilliant period of Turkish construction coincides with the reign of the Ottoman ruler Süleyman the Magnificent (1520–66).

The next major change in the history of Istanbul occurred at the beginning of the 19th century, when dismemberment of the Ottoman Empire was approaching. This period is known as the era of internal reforms (Tanzimat). The reforms were accompanied by serious disturbances, such as the massacre of the Janissaries in the Hippodrome (1826). With the triumph of the progressive Ottoman sultan Mahmud II over the conservative opposition, the Westernization of Istanbul started apace. There was an ever-growing influx of European visitors who, since the 1830s, could reach Istanbul by steamship. The first bridge across the Golden Horn was built in 1838. In 1839 the Ottoman sultan Abdülmecid I issued a charter guaranteeing to all his subjects, whatever their religion, the security of their lives and fortunes. The process of Westernization was further accelerated by the Crimean War (1853–56) and the quartering of British and French troops in Istanbul. The latter part of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century were marked by the introduction of various public services: the European railroad extending to Istanbul was begun in the early 1870s. The underground tunnel joining Galata to Pera was completed in 1873; a regular water supply for Istanbul and the settlements on the European side of the Bosporus was brought from Lake Terkos on the Black Sea coast (29 miles [47 km] from the city) by the French company, La Compagnie des Eaux, after 1885; electric lighting was introduced in 1912 and electric street cars and telephones in 1913 and 1914. An adequate sewerage system had to wait until 1925 and later.

Modern Istanbul

In the first quarter of the 20th century there were various disruptions marking the death of the Ottoman Empire and the birth of modern Turkey. In 1908 the city was occupied by the army of the Young Turks who deposed the hated sultan Abdülhamid II. During the Balkan Wars (1912–13) Istanbul was nearly captured by the Bulgarians. Throughout World War I the city was under blockade. After the conclusion of the Armistice (1918) it was placed under British, French, and Italian occupation that lasted until 1923. The Greco-Turkish War in Asia Minor, as well as the Russian Revolution, brought thousands of refugees to Istanbul. With the victory of the Nationalists under Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, the sultanate was abolished, and the last Ottoman sultan, Mehmed VI, fled from Istanbul (1922). After the signing of the Treaty of Lausanne, Istanbul was evacuated by the Allies (October 2, 1923), and Ankara was chosen as the capital of Turkey (October 13, 1923). On October 29 the Turkish Republic was proclaimed. Because of Turkey’s neutrality during most of World War II, Istanbul suffered no damage, although a German invasion was feared after the Balkans had been conquered by the Axis.

In the period following World War II, the size and population of Istanbul increased dramatically as vast numbers of rural residents moved to the city in search of employment. This nearly 10-fold increase in the city’s population during the second half of the 20th century placed enormous strains on Istanbul’s infrastructure, and, in a pattern typical of large Middle Eastern cities, overcrowding, pollution, and insufficient city services became major social problems. Likewise, in a region prone to violent seismic activity, the proliferation of substandard and unregistered construction contributed greatly to high death tolls during earthquakes; in August 1999 a tremor centred near Istanbul killed more than 15,000 people.

These developments took place against the backdrop of a city whose profile was being rapidly altered by an explosion in the use of automobiles. Large tracts of the city were demolished or cleared to make way for modern highways, which further contributed to urban sprawl, and by the close of the century major projects had been undertaken to connect the Asian and European sides of the city by road and rail.

A concerted effort to attract foreign investment helped drive rapid urban renewal at the beginning of the 21st century. In addition to the significant improvements to transportation and infrastructure, old buildings were renovated or repurposed, ancient edifices were restored, and striking new structures and skyscrapers were erected. The population grew by nearly one-third in the first decade of the new century. The boom was not without controversy, however, as residents expressed concern over the apparent prioritization of commerce and tourism over the conservation of city life and Istanbul’s ancient heritage. In 2013 the government faced massive protests after it announced plans to build a shopping centre in Gezi Park, one of the last remaining green spaces in the central part of the city.