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Initial public offering
initial public offering
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IPO need-to-knows: Basics of initial public offerings

A company’s way to say “hello.”
Written byBruce Blythe
Bruce Blythe
Bruce Blythe is a veteran financial journalist with expertise in agriculture and food production; commodity futures; energy and biofuels; investing, trading, and money management; cryptocurrencies; retail; and technology.
Fact-checked byDan Rosenberg
Dan Rosenberg
Dan is a veteran writer and editor specializing in financial news, market education, and public relations. Earlier in his career, he spent nearly a decade covering corporate news and markets for Dow Jones Newswires, with his articles frequently appearing in The Wall Street Journal and Barron’s.
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Table of Contents
Read More
Initial public offering
initial public offering
Hands are holding two cubes with the words "sell" and "buy".
Arbitrage and the invisible hand: Enhancing price efficiency across markets
Hand building a toy bridge with wooden blocks.
Market makers: Keeping markets efficient, liquid, and robust
Traders work on the floor of the New York Stock Exchange June 25, 2004 in New York City. The Dow closed down more than 71 points with the Nasdaq gaining more than 9 points on the day.
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A company's transition to that first bell-ringing.
Stephen Chernin—Getty Images News/Getty Images
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Initial public offerings, or IPOs, are a big deal in terms of dollars, media attention, and Wall Street pomp and circumstance. But what is an IPO? The initial public offering traditionally marks the first time a business sells shares on the market. Those new shares may carry greater potential risk—but also opportunity—than shares of established public companies.

An IPO, at its core, is how companies say “hello” to investors. It’s often referred to as going public. But many companies preparing an IPO are already well known, often because they’re fast-growing start-ups. For instance, Facebook parent Meta (META) already had more than 900 million users by the time it went public in 2012. Not exactly a stranger.

Key Points

  • An IPO is when a company goes public by offering shares to general investors for the first time.
  • Before an IPO, the company has to go through a long process of introducing itself to investors.
  • IPO investing can be risky because there’s often little financial data associated with the company.

There can be lots of buildup ahead of the actual debut for such stocks, or even for less-known IPOs, and that buildup usually leads to media hype. This might lead unwary investors to overlook potential downsides, which is why anyone considering this type of investment should understand some IPO basics before jumping in.

Why do companies have IPOs?

Many companies go public to raise capital, broaden their opportunities for future access to capital, or both.

Other reasons, according to the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC), include:

  • Increasing liquidity for a company’s stock, which may allow owners and employees to sell shares more easily.
  • Acquiring other businesses with the company’s stock.
  • Attracting and compensating employees with the company’s stock or stock options.
  • Creating publicity, brand awareness, or prestige for a company.

U.S. companies planning an IPO must file a registration statement with the SEC. But that’s just one early step in a long IPO process.

What’s the purpose of the IPO process?

The IPO process is a critical vetting period when a company’s finances and business plan are subject to the scrutiny of regulators and finance industry professionals.

Underwriting. A company typically enlists an “underwriter”—often a big Wall Street bank or group of banks—to examine its books and determine a fair IPO price. Underwriters work with the company to decide on the basic terms and structure of the offering well before trading starts, including the percentage of shares going to institutions like hedge funds, mutual funds, and endowments, as well as to individual investors.

“Most underwriters target institutional or wealthy investors in IPO distributions,” according to the SEC.

Road show. During the IPO process, which can last several months or longer, company management usually travels around the country in a “road show” aimed at attracting potential investors. Company leaders may receive an opportunity to buy new shares before the IPO. This can be lucrative if the price shoots up following the public offering.

How do investors learn about an IPO?

You may hear about an IPO in the news, but how do you research the company?

Start with the IPO prospectus. It’s a requirement before any IPO. It describes the nature of the company’s business and the terms of the offering. These documents are publicly available on the SEC EDGAR database.

The SEC has a simple message: Study the prospectus. “A new public company typically has no prior reporting history, and the information that can inform a decision to invest often can only be found in the prospectus,” the organization says.

Some things to look for in the prospectus include:

  • Key products and market share
  • Competition
  • Management information
  • Company financials
  • The offering price and how it was determined
  • Any major risks

You should also look beyond the prospectus:

  • Read media articles about the company in respected publications, including trade ones that may know the industry better than national news outlets.
  • Check research reports on the company by the underwriting banks, but be wary, because these reports may present a conflict of interest.

Unlike with a company already on the market, you can’t expect to find lots of financial reporting history, so you have to trust the numbers in the prospectus. That’s part of why IPOs can be risky. What you don’t know can hurt you.

How can you invest in an IPO?

There are two ways the general public can invest in a new public company.

If you’re a client of an underwriter involved in the IPO, you may be offered the opportunity to participate directly, meaning you could receive an IPO allotment at the offering price (this price changes fast as soon as the stock begins trading publicly). Underwriters often distribute most of the shares in the IPO to their institutional and high-net-worth clients, such as mutual funds, hedge funds, and certain individuals.

For the rest of the investing public, the more common way is to place an order with a broker to purchase shares when they start trading in the public market following the IPO.

What makes an IPO “hot?”

“Hot” IPOs might involve a tech start-up or other relatively new business in a fast-growing industry. They often generate lots of coverage in the financial media.

Investors should be especially wary. When an IPO is “hot,” it can mean many investors are angling for a piece of the action. Demand for the securities often exceeds the supply of shares, and this excess demand can only be satisfied once trading in the IPO shares begins (simply because the shares aren’t trading on the market before then).

It’s often unclear how hot the offering will be until close to when the shares start trading. Hot IPOs are in high demand, and underwriters usually offer those shares to their most valued clients. What do you get when demand for shares far exceeds supply? Typically, a big uptick in price during the days following the IPO.

Buying IPO shares too soon can set you up for failure. The stock often doesn’t live up to the hype, and there’s also the IPO “lockup period” to consider. That’s the point, about three to six months after the IPO, when insiders who held shares before the public offering are first allowed to sell. This can mean a bout of profit-taking that can weigh on the stock price.

How big is the IPO market?

IPO activity often ebbs and flows with broader market sentiment or economic activity. Bull markets tend to produce more IPOs than bear markets.

In 2021, 397 U.S. IPOs raised $142.4 billion, the most deals in a single year since 2000 and an all-time high in terms of money raised, according to Renaissance Capital, an IPO research firm.

How do IPOs perform?

Because many companies execute their IPOs before reaching profitability, performance can be fickle. Many become big winners, but more become big losers if you wait long enough.

A 2021 Nasdaq study looking at IPOs from 2010 and 2020 found that IPO performance sagged over time. Three months after going public, the study said, 34% of IPOs had outperformed their respective indexes by 10% or more, and 32% had underperformed by 10% or more. At that point, the spread was roughly 50-50 between IPOs beating or losing to their indexes overall.

A year out, 50% of IPOs were underperforming by 10% or more, and just 34% outperforming by 10% or more.

Three years out, the results got even more dramatic to the downside. Although the top 10% of IPO performers had far outperformed their indexes by then, almost two-thirds of all IPOs had underperformed.

“That seems to indicate that for some companies, the initial IPO enthusiasm wanes or expected earnings are not met, and investors reprice the IPO to reflect the actual, slower growth of the company,” the Nasdaq study said.

The bottom line

Doing your homework is paramount before sinking any hard-earned money into an IPO. Even if IPOs aren’t well suited for many individual investors, the IPO market is still worth following as a barometer of market sentiment and a window into where professional investors see growth and opportunities. Just remember that what’s hot one day can quickly turn cold.

References