An electorate seemingly disenchanted with Maduro’s rule went to the polls in great numbers in early December 2015 for National Assembly elections that were seen by many as a referendum on his presidency. In the event, the PSUV lost control of the assembly for the first time in 16 years, as the centrist-conservative opposition swept to a commanding legislative majority. That opposition majority raised the possibility of the enactment of legislation to release the high-profile critics that Maduro’s government had incarcerated as well as the potential of an actual referendum on Maduro’s presidency once it reached its halfway point.

In March 2016 the opposition-controlled assembly did indeed pass legislation that set the stage for the release of dozens of opponents of the Maduro government, including López. Maduro, who denied that those incarcerated were political prisoners, responded by promising to veto the legislation, telling a national television audience that “laws to protect terrorists and criminals will not get past me, no matter what they do.” Maduro also had the option of referring the legislation to the Supreme Court for review of its constitutionality.

In April the opposition hit a roadblock in its attempt to remove Maduro from office when the Supreme Court ruled that an amendment to the constitution to reduce the presidential term from six to four years would be constitutional but could not be applied retroactively for Maduro. On the other hand, also in April, observers were surprised when the national electoral commission, generally believed to be sympathetic to Maduro, allowed the initiation of the paperwork necessary to begin a recall of Maduro. The first step in the process required that 1 percent of eligible voters sign a petition requesting a recall, and the second step required that at least 20 percent of voters approve a call for a recall vote. In the event of a recall vote, Maduro could be removed from office only if the percentage of voters who approved the recall was greater than that of those who had voted for Maduro in the presidential election. All of this unfolded as the Venezuelan economy slid deeper into a crippling recession. In April shortages of hydroelectric power brought about by El Niño-related drought led the Maduro administration to order government workers to take three days off per week.

By early May the opposition had submitted petitions with some 1.8 million signatures (nine times the roughly 200,000 required to move the recall process along), but the electoral commission appeared to drag its feet in the validation process, prompting demonstrations, some of which turned violent. Maduro responded by claiming that a deadline for the initial petition had passed and that the petitions contained falsified signatures. Timing had everything to do with Maduro’s attempts to delay the movement toward a recall. According to law, if a successful recall were held in 2016, it would result in a presidential election; however, if the vote were not to occur until 2017, the successful removal of Maduro would result in his replacement by Vice Pres. Aristóbulo Istúriz, a PSUV loyalist.

On May 13 Maduro shocked the country by declaring a renewable 60-day state of emergency that granted the army and police additional powers to keep order and that increased the president’s ability to work around the legislature. Maduro announced that he had taken this step in the interest of national security because, he claimed, right-wing contingents within the country were plotting with foreign elements to destabilize Venezuela. The National Assembly was quick to reject Maduro’s decree, but Maduro served notice that he would not honor that vote and questioned the legislature’s legitimacy.

In August the electoral commission ruled that the petition for a referendum on Maduro’s recall had nearly double the number of valid signatures required to move the process on to its next stage; however, it did not set a date for the next step, which required the collection of some four million signatures in three days. Maduro took an especially tough, authoritarian stance in advance of promised demonstrations by the opposition in response to these further delays. Some observers argued that Maduro’s hardball tactics served only to swell the number of protesters from all over the country who took to the streets of Caracas on September 1.

Near the end of October, with inflation soaring in triple digits, the country prepared for the initiation of the three-day period in which the signatures of 20 percent of the electorate in every Venezuelan state would have to be collected to force the recall referendum. Opinion polling indicated that a majority of Venezuelans were in favor of Maduro’s removal. Only days before the beginning of the signature drive, however, several lower courts ruled that the earlier petition effort had been compromised by fraud, prompting the election commission to indefinitely suspend the second round of signature collection, all but guaranteeing that the referendum vote would not occur in 2016. Already angered by the commission’s decision earlier in October to postpone several gubernatorial elections in which the opposition expected to make big gains, critics of Maduro accused him of having moved from authoritarian to dictatorial rule. In the National Assembly the opposition also voted to undertake a “political and criminal trial” of Maduro, who responded by accusing the opposition of staging a coup. Meanwhile, working behind the scenes, Francis I, the first pope from Latin America, persuaded Maduro and the opposition to begin crisis talks.

Although those talks initially resulted in the release of a number of imprisoned opponents of Maduro and a respite from anti-Maduro street demonstrations, by December they had broken down, after the president refused to release the majority of the incarcerated political activists and remained adamant about not accepting foreign humanitarian aid. To have done the latter would have constituted Maduro’s admission that the country was in crisis, which he refused to acknowledge, despite the fact that leaked information from the central bank (which had stopped releasing data) indicated that gross domestic product (GDP) had dropped by almost 19 percent in 2016, with inflation soaring to 800 percent.

In the meantime, the Supreme Court, which was dominated by Maduro supporters, undermined the authority of the National Assembly by repeatedly overturning laws that it had enacted. Maduro’s contempt for the legislators was reflected in his decision to deliver his annual address on the state of the country in January 2017 not before the National Assembly, which would have accorded with tradition and the constitution, but instead before the Supreme Court. In March the court destroyed even the pretense of legislative independence by effectively dissolving the National Assembly and assuming its powers after finding it in contempt for allegedly failing to adequately prosecute three legislators who were accused of participating in vote buying. Widespread international criticism of the court’s action came quickly, and Maduro responded by compelling the court to revoke its action within days of having taken it.