Michael VIII Palaeologus

Michael VIII Palaeologus (born 1224 or 1225—died December 11, 1282, Thrace) was the Nicaean emperor (1259–61) and then Byzantine emperor (1261–82), who in 1261 restored the Byzantine Empire to the Greeks after 57 years of Latin occupation and who founded the Palaeologan dynasty, the last and longest-lived of the empire’s ruling houses.

Early years

A scion of several former imperial families (Ducas, Angelus, Comnenus), Michael passed a rather uneventful boyhood, seemingly marked primarily by fantasies of himself recovering Constantinople from the Latins; he spent much of his youth living in the imperial palaces at Nicaea and Nicomedia.

His remarkable resourcefulness and talent for intrigue were revealed early. At the age of 21 he was charged by the emperor John III Vatatzes of Nicaea with treasonous conduct against the state, a charge from which he extricated himself by the force of his wit. Later, on the death of the emperor Theodore II Lascaris in 1258, Michael was chosen regent for Theodore’s six-year-old son, John Lascaris. Gradually usurping more and more authority, Michael seized the throne and early in 1259 was crowned emperor after shunting aside and blinding the rightful heir, his charge, John. Faced with rebellion by Lascarid supporters in Asia Minor, Michael succeeded, in the eyes of many Greeks, in legitimating his rule by retaking Constantinople from the Latins. Whether as the result of Michael’s carefully planned ruse or of accident or both, the great city fell to his general in July 1261. Although the Greeks generally were exultant, a few realized that the centre of gravity had shifted from Asia Minor to Europe. In the long run this concern with Europe was to prove fateful, for it led to the neglect of the frontiers in the East and, with that neglect, eventually to the conquest and settlement of all of Asia Minor by the Turks.

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Defense against Latin rivals

From the first, Michael’s hold on the throne was precarious, surrounded as it was on all sides by Latins desirous of restoring Latin rule. Especially active was Baldwin II of Courtenay, the last Latin emperor of Constantinople. In his maneuvers to recover his throne from Michael, Baldwin finally entered into a diplomatic and matrimonial alliance with a man who was the West’s ablest diplomat—in his machinations almost the equal of Michael himself—Charles of Anjou, brother of St. Louis of France. At papal invitation, Charles advanced into southern Italy, expelled the last representatives of the imperial house of Hohenstaufen, Manfred and Conradin, and then from Palermo and Naples almost at once fixed his gaze across the Balkans onto Constantinople. To quote a chronicler, “he aspired to the monarchy of the world, hoping thereby to recreate the great empire of Julius Caesar by joining East and West.”

In exchange for the papal promise to restrain Charles from attacking Constantinople, Michael promised to bring about religious union of the Greek church with Rome. That promise provoked the violent opposition of most of Michael’s own people, who opposed union on doctrinal grounds. Specifically, they objected to such parts of the Latin liturgy as the Filioque (statement of belief in the procession of the Holy Spirit from the Son and the Father) and the use of the azyme (unleavened bread). Perhaps more important, most of them refused to accept papal ecclesiastical supremacy, which they felt, however obscurely, would lead to restoration of Latin political domination and possibly even cultural assimilation to the Latins.

Union of Eastern and Latin churches

Despite all the obstacles, union was nevertheless finally pronounced at the Second Council of Lyon in 1274. The Orthodox East was coerced into accepting union. Immediately after Michael’s death (1282), however, the Greek church declared the union invalid. The Greeks objected to the council on the grounds that not all the Eastern patriarchs or their representatives had been present, that no discussion of problems separating the two churches had taken place, and that no subsequent council had declared that of Lyon ecumenical. Nevertheless, for political reasons, Michael had struggled to maintain the union. But, when Charles of Anjou finally managed to enthrone his own candidate, Martin IV, as pope in 1281, Martin at once excommunicated Michael and at the same time pronounced Charles’s projected expedition against Byzantium a “Holy Crusade” against the “schismatic” Greeks. Included in the vast network of alliances erected by Charles to conquer the Greek East were not only Sicily, parts of Italy, Greek Lascarid dissidents, various Slavs of the Balkans, Baldwin, France, and Venice but also the papacy. Venice’s aim in particular was to recover the broad trading privileges it had exercised in the days of the Latin empire and to oust its arch foe, the Genoese, from the lucrative Greek markets.

The diplomatic duel between Charles and Michael was intensified, with Charles striving unceasingly to prepare his troops and navy. He even launched an attack across the Adriatic on Berat (in modern Albania) under the French general Sully but was repulsed by Michael. What Michael had on his side—the result of his consummate diplomatic ability—was (for a time) the papal alliance, a secret agreement with the Hohenstaufen supporters in Sicily, the support of Genoa, and, most important, a secret alliance with the son-in-law of Manfred, King Peter III of Aragon. The denouement to this remarkable contest was the outbreak on March 30/31, 1282, of the Sicilian Vespers, the massacre of the French signaling the revolt against Charles. Byzantium was saved from a second occupation by the Latins.

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Legacy

At his death, which occurred soon afterward, Michael thus left an intact empire to his son Andronicus II. But it cannot be denied that his policy of using ecclesiastical union to stave off Charles’s attack on his capital and the deep opposition that policy provoked among the Byzantine population established a fateful precedent for later Byzantine history. Moreover, by focusing his attention too exclusively on Europe, his policy helped lead to Ottoman occupation of all of Asia Minor and ultimately to the capture of Constantinople itself. Nevertheless, Michael’s positive accomplishments cannot be overlooked. He gave Byzantium two centuries more of life, began rebuilding the capital, and reestablished the University of Constantinople. His sponsorship of a general revival of learning led to the important Byzantine “Renaissance” in the 14th and 15th centuries.