Job
Job, is a biblical figure who appears most prominently as the titular character of the Book of Job in the Hebrew Bible (Old Testament). In that biblical text, Job is described as a righteous, god-fearing, and prosperous man. In a heavenly meeting God extols Job’s virtues, but Satan insists that Job is pious only because God has protected and blessed him. Satan suggests that if God took away Job’s prosperity and health, Job would curse God. With God’s permission, Satan takes away Job’s children and property and then afflicts him with sores on his body. Job initially refuses to speak ill of God. He then enters a conversation with three friends about the meaning of his affliction, during which he becomes increasingly accusatory toward God. God finally appears out of a whirlwind to put Job in his place, illustrating the contrast between unlimited divine and limited human comprehension and power, and then restores Job’s wealth and health at the end. The image of Job as the righteous sufferer has echoed down through the millenniums, and the Book of Job’s probing of theodicy—the question of why a benevolent God would permit human suffering—has endured as a potent site for theological and ethical debate and a wellspring of artistic creativity.
Book of Job summary
The Book of Job consists of two separate portions. The bulk of the work is an extended dialogue in poetic form between the hero and his friends and eventually God himself. The poem is set within the framework of a short narrative in prose form. The book falls into five sections: a prologue (chapters 1 and 2); the dialogue between Job and his friends (3–31); the speeches of Elihu (32–37); the speeches of God and Job’s reply (38–42:6); and an epilogue (42:7–17).
Job is first pictured as an ideal patriarch with a family of 10 children, who has been rewarded for his piety with material prosperity and happiness. At an assembly of divine beings, God makes inquiries about the activities of Satan (Hebrew: ha-saṭan, “the accuser”), who is present at the heavenly council and has been roaming about on Earth. God asks Satan, “Have you considered my servant Job? There is no one like him on the earth, a blameless and upright man who fears God and turns away from evil” (Job 1:8). Satan responds, “Does Job fear God for nothing?” (Job 1:9). He further suggests that Job’s piety stems from God’s protection and blessing. As a challenge, Satan tells God, “But stretch out your hand now, and touch all that he has, and he will curse you to your face” (Job 1:11). Satan then acts with God’s permission as an agent provocateur to test whether or not Job’s piety is rooted in self-interest. Faced with the appalling loss of his worldly possessions and his 10 children, Job refuses to curse God. In a similar exchange between God and Satan in chapter 2, God points out that Job “persists in his integrity.” Satan suggests that Job’s health might be impacted to further the test, and God allows the challenge as long as Job’s life is ultimately spared. Job is then afflicted with sores all over his body.
In the poignant scene that follows, Job sits on a heap of ashes with a potsherd to scratch his sores and is told by his wife, “Do you still persist in your integrity? Curse God and die.” He retorts, “You speak as any foolish woman would speak. Shall we receive good from God and not receive evil?” (Job 2:9–10). His capacity for trusting God’s goodness here makes of him an unsurpassed model of patience.
Three of Job’s friends then arrive to comfort him, commencing the poetic dialogue section of the book. The picture of Job that is presented in the poetic portion is radically different from the Job of the first part. Instead of the patient and loyal servant of God, he is an anguished and indignant sufferer, who violently protests the way God is treating him and displays a variety of moods ranging from utter despair, in which he cries out accusingly against God, to bold confidence, in which he calls for a hearing before God. This is Job the rebel.
The poetic section opens with a heartrending soliloquy by Job in which the sufferer curses the day of his birth. The shocked friends are roused from their silence, and there follow three cycles of speeches (chapters 4–14, 15–21, and 22–27) in which the friends speak in turn. In various ways, the friends attempt to console Job, to reconcile him to God, and to insist that his punishment must be in some way warranted. To each such speech Job makes impassioned replies defending his innocence. The personalities of the friends are skillfully delineated, Eliphaz appearing as a mystic in the prophetic tradition, Bildad as a sage who looks to the authority of tradition, and Zophar as an impatient dogmatist who glibly expounds what he regards as the incomprehensible ways of God. Chapter 28 inserts a poem on wisdom, after which Job completes his legal defense of innocence, insisting he has been wronged. Chapters 32–37, however, add the character of Elihu, who speaks of God’s greatness and justice while criticizing Job’s self-righteousness and friends.
The climax of the poem is reached in the speeches of God, who appears in a majestic theophany—an appearance of God to humankind—in a whirlwind and reveals himself to Job in three speeches interspersed with two short responses by Job. Biblical scholars have often questioned whether this section—especially the descriptions of biblical beasts the Behemoth and the Leviathan in God’s second speech—is a genuine part of the original poem, but there is no doubt that their presence at this point in the book is a dramatic triumph. Throughout these speeches God does not offer rational answers to Job’s questions and accusations; he raises the discussion to a new perspective. With heavy irony God puts to Job a series of unanswerable questions about the mysteries of the universe; if, the writer is asking, Job is unable to answer the simple questions about the divine activity in the marvels of nature, how can God explain to him the deeper mystery of his dealings with humanity? Job’s personal problems are ignored, yet he finds his answer in this direct encounter with God. At the end Job stands in a new relationship to God, one no longer based on hearsay but the result of an act of personal faith expressed in repentance. In the conclusion God restores Job’s belongings at twice their original rate, Job has 10 new children, and he lives to a ripe old age.
Precursors and composition
Literature featuring a pious sufferer in ancient Mesopotamia predates the Book of Job, including the Babylonian text Ludlul bēl nēmeqi (“Let us praise the god of wisdom”) written c. 1300–700 bce and a poetic text commonly called the “Babylonian Theodicy” dating from c. 1000 bce. These texts approach similar themes as the Book of Job and suggest the possibility that the Israelite author(s) of Job wrote within a cosmopolitan milieu.
The possible origin of the genre outside of ancient Israel may explain the text’s portrayal of Job as a non-Israelite. The text identifies Job as a resident of the land of Uz, and scholars suggest he might be an Edomite, as are his three friends Eliphaz the Temanite, Bildad the Shuhite, and Zophar the Naamathite. His name, which is atypical of Israelites, is found in pre-Israelite texts ranging from the 19th to the 14th century bce in Syria and Palestine. Despite his non-Israelite background, the Book of Job clearly incorporates its main character into an Israelite theological universe as a devotee of the biblical God. Job is also mentioned by the prophet Ezekiel (Ezekiel 14:14) in the same breath as other non- or pre-Israelite righteous suffering figures Noah and Daniel (the latter being, according to some scholars, a reference not to the biblical Daniel but to “Danel,” the main figure in a Canaanite text called the Aqhat Epic).
Many scholars think the Book of Job was written in the 5th or 6th century bce, in the period following the Babylonian Exile (598/7–538 bce), but other scholars have suggested wider date ranges either earlier, such as the 8th century, or later, particularly in the case of the Elihu speeches. It has been suggested by most scholars that the Book of Job is a composition in many parts by multiple authors over time. They posit first an outer prose narrative telling of Job’s piousness, suffering at the hands of the divine, and the restoration at the end. Later another author, possibly an Israelite, inserted a middle poetic section that includes Job’s dialogues with friends and God’s concluding speech. Somewhere along the line, an author added a poem on wisdom that became chapter 28. Scholars also believe that Elihu’s speeches were a later addition, because Elihu is not mentioned elsewhere in the Book of Job, and the language and style of his speeches differ from the rest of the text.
The Testament of Job
A different depiction of Job appears in The Testament of Job, a pseudepigraphical Hellenistic Jewish text likely written in either Palestine or Egypt. It was deemed apocryphal—outside the biblical canon—in the 5th or 6th century ce in a decree attributed to Pope Gelasius I and was never included in the Hebrew Bible. Some scholars posit that it was the Job of this text, depicted as the epitome of endurance, that informed a strong and enduring reading of Job’s patience as paramount. Indeed, some think that the Testament of Job was the influence behind the mention of Job’s endurance in the Letter of James (James 5:11). The text is in the style of a Haggadah—biblical expositions, histories, and other teachings that are part of rabbinical literature but do not deal directly with the laws incumbent upon Jews—and dates from approximately the 1st century bce to the 1st century ce, before at least 70 ce.
In the outer frame narrative of this telling, Job reflects back on his life while on his deathbed. Here he identifies himself as a descendant of Esau—thus an Edomite but more clearly a part of the biblical patriarchy than he appears in the Book of Job—and also as a rich and benevolent king, possibly called by the name Jobab, in the land of Uz. In this telling the cause of his affliction was not Satan’s test, and thus not a theodicy, but a battle between good and evil. This telling posits Job less as an innocent sufferer than as an iconoclast—a destroyer of idols and opponent of their worship. He lived near a temple where people worshipped an idol, and he wondered if this idol was the original creator of the universe. At night, a divine voice informs Job that the idol is of Satan and gives Job permission to destroy it, albeit with a warning that doing so will incur Satan’s wrath. Having destroyed the temple, Job’s short-lived battle of wills with Satan begins. Job quickly defeats Satan by revealing his endurance during the calamities that befall him and his wife, Sitidos. However, Job is not immediately returned to prosperity and health; his conversations with friends follow the defeat of Satan, and his restoration comes later in the account.
An important figure in this version of the story is Sitidos. After Job loses his possessions, she takes up the job of being a servant in a house of a nobleman. In a stirring scene she goes to the market for bread while Satan adopts the disguise of a bread seller. When Satan as the bread seller asks her for money, she laments that she has none and begs for mercy. Satan accuses her of deserving her fate and demands her hair in exchange for three loaves of bread. After he cuts her hair and gives her the loaves, Satan then follows her to Job. When she weeps her laments to her husband, Job stands steadfast against Satan and calls him out to fight. It is at this point that Satan, in tears, surrenders to Job. Later in the story, when Sitidos laments over her dead children, Job reveals to her that their children have been crowned in heaven. Relieved by the sight of her children in heaven but also exhausted from hard work as a servant, she then dies while napping in her master’s manger.
In this account Elihu is depicted as the voice of Satan, who insults Job. God’s appearance is a brief cameo revealing Elihu as a “beast” and accusing the friends of sinful misguidance, for which the friends (excluding Elihu) are told to repent with sacrifice. Job determines to again act benevolently toward the poor, and God quickly restores his wealth. After marrying Dinah (daughter of Jacob) he then has 10 more children among whom he divides his wealth, and, returning to the outer frame of the story, he advises them on good deeds prior to his death.
In contrast to the Book of Job, the Testament of Job does not concern itself with the question of theodicy. God’s role is minimal both in the beginning and the end, and Job’s suffering is clearly depicted as the machinations of Satan. Satan in this text is more clearly evil and diametrically opposed to God than as depicted in the Book of Job. Whereas the Book of Job depicts the titular character as either the righteous or, in the poetic section, the rebellious sufferer, the Testament of Job errs on the side of depicting him as a benevolent king who suffers for doing a good deed for God against evil and who continues to endure valiantly through suffering. Rather than question suffering, the Testament of Job assumes the existence of suffering and shows how a good person can cope with that reality.
Interpreting Job
In the Rabbinic Jewish tradition, the character and meaning of Job is heavily debated. For some rabbis, he is the paradigmatic example of the righteous gentile (non-Jew), while other rabbis question his virtue. In some Rabbinic interpretations, he is a non-Jewish adviser to the Pharaoh who did not speak against the Pharaoh’s plan to drown the Israelites, as mentioned in Exodus (1:22), an act of silence said by some interpreters to precipitate Job’s later suffering. Others read his mistreatment by Satan as a distraction that God creates to allow the Israelites to escape Egypt without Satan’s interference. In another Jewish interpretive path, Job is definitively a Jew who was born circumcised and whose suffering is thought to reflect that of the Israelites. For Jewish philosopher Moses Maimonides, Job is righteous but insufficiently learned, but the ancient sufferer proves the capacity for learning in the text.
Christian readings of Job focus on the image of the patient and virtuous Job in the outer frame story. Not only is his patience seen as a virtue, but his ability to withstand suffering is seen as a precursor to Jesus as the messiah. Christians read Job as having foreseen and foretold an eventual restoration under Jesus as the Christ figure. For some, such as St. Ambrose, Job served as a symbol of asceticism and wealth’s impediment to salvation. Job was also significant as a model of virtue among the Pelagians, a 5th-century heretical Christian group that preached humanity’s inherent goodness. For St. Thomas Aquinas, Job symbolized the student whose self-assured nature needs to be tamed, but he also understood Job’s story as indicative of the difficulty of perceiving the role of the divine in human affairs. Martin Luther read Job as representing the paradox of sin and virtue in one being and the struggle within. John Calvin’s interpretation is similar to Aquinas’s, as he read Job as an exemplar of patience and faith in the face of God’s inscrutable grand design, ultimately trusting in God’s divine plan.
Job is known in Islam as a paragon of virtue and faith and appears in the Qurʾān under the appellation Ayyūb. He is regarded as one of the many prophets (anbiyāʿ; singular, nabī) acknowledged in Islam, from Abraham to Jesus, to whom God granted revelation. Job’s story in the Qurʾān serves also as a reflection of God’s mercy. Two hadiths recount a story that when Job’s wealth and health were restored, golden locusts fell upon him, and he collected them in his pockets. When asked if Job was not satisfied with all he had already received that he should greedily hoard golden locusts, Job queried in return whether anyone could be satisfied with God’s mercy. In another account, he replied that he could not refuse God’s blessing.
Among secular scholars and within the modern tradition of biblical interpretation, Job has been the subject of much analysis and debate, from discussions about meaning, to readings in historical context, to textual criticism approaches that query the date and manner of the Book of Job’s composition. One point that scholars often raise is that the Satan of the Book of Job is not identical with the evil Satan found in later tradition. On this reading, in the Book of Job, Satan as ha-saṭan, “the accuser,” is a member of God’s heavenly council, which is modeled on a royal court. Satan is thus a divine official who is tasked with roaming about on Earth to seek out troublemakers and accusing them of wrongdoing in the heavenly court. While Satan does instigate suffering, he does so only with God’s permission. In contrast, Satan in the New Testament is an independent entity who is the embodiment of evil and an enemy of God.
Other scholars have considered Job’s story beyond its religious context as a masterpiece of literature. For literary analysis, one primary concern is the subject of genre, and scholars have seen in the Book of Job aspects of the epic, theodicy, tragedy, wisdom literature, a trial, and lamentations. A counterintuitive but often-discussed analysis reads Job as a form of comedy—not laugh-out-loud comedy, but comedy as a literary genre that points out irony and has a narrative form that descends into tragedy before ending in a happy restoration. In this comic view, championed by biblical scholar J. William Whedbee, Job’s discussions with Eliphaz, Bildad, and Zophar can be read as a parody poking fun at the misguided pedantic friends. Further, the entire narrative arc—like many a comic movie—traces a three-part structure from status quo to tragedy to joyful resolution. According to this comedic interpretation, the Book of Job is less a text about divine punishment and power and rather more a story that poignantly points out the ironies and incongruities of human existence.
Job in the arts
Beyond or adjacent to religion, the figure of Job has long been featured in the arts, including visual art, literature, music, and film. In Roman art of the 4th century ce, Job appears painted on catacombs, sometimes accompanied by his wife, portrayed in a pensive stance indicating a contemplation of death. In 9th-century Byzantine art, Job is typically depicted covered in sores and seated upon a dung heap, often accompanied by his wife and friends. A 13th-century Byzantine image adds a halo around Job, giving him a saintly air, even as he is seen naked and covered in sores on the dung heap. Also from the 13th century, Job appears in a carving in the Chartres Cathedral with Satan laughing as he suffers. In a 15th-century book of hours, Job—haloed and praying—is surrounded by musicians and his wife seemingly dancing along. In Medieval Europe Job was considered a patron saint of musicians, hence the many historical images of him accompanied by musicians.
In the 1820s British Romantic artist and author William Blake produced a series of 22 illustrated engravings for the Book of Job that explored the subject matter with a keen eye for emotional dimensions. Artistic interpretations of Job’s anguish with a deep psychological component arose in the wake of the Holocaust in work by Jewish artists such as Marc Chagall.
Job, a patron saint of musicians, has a few notable appearances in music. Most famously, in George Frideric Handel’s 1742 Messiah, one oratorio is taken from Job 19:25–26: “I know my redeemer lives, and that in the end he will stand upon the earth; and after my skin has been destroyed, then in my flesh I shall see God.” In this musical setting, the Christian interpretation of Job as a precursor to, or even prophet of, Jesus as messiah is made clear.
A number of literary works reimagine the story of Job in modern contexts. Most notably, Archibald MacLeish’s 1958 play J.B. earned the author a Pulitzer Prize for drama in 1959. Other works of modern Job includeJoseph Roth’s Job(1930) set in tsarist Russia, Robert Frost’s satirical and dramatic sequel to the Book of Job in The Masque of Reason (1945), Neil Simon’s comic play God’s Favorite (1974), and Robert Heinlein’s sci-fi adaptation Job: A Comedy of Justice (1984). Meanwhile, dramatic versions of Job written by 20th-century religious thinkers include the dramas Job (1940) by St. John Paul II (written under the name Karol Wojtyła before he became pope) and The Trial of God (As It Was Held on February 25, 1649 in Shamgorod) (1979) by Nobel Peace Prize winner and Holocaust survivor Elie Wiesel. In popular television, Job’s story has been depicted in Neil Gaiman and Terry Pratchett’s series Good Omens (2019– ) and the animated series South Park (1997– ). The Christian sci-fi film The Shift (2023) also offers a modern rendition of the Book of Job.
The literary and cinematic record is also filled with numerous instances of Job-like characters who suffer despite attempting to lead good lives. There is a Job-like element to Joseph K., who faces an absurdist bureaucracy, in Franz Kafka’s The Trial (1925). Another Job-like character is Tevye the dairyman in the Yiddish-language writings of Sholem Aleichem set in the Pale of Settlement. Tevye, in Aleichem’s stories, often compares himself to Job, and those stories were later adapted into Fiddler on the Roof, the Broadway show (1964) and movie (1971). A similar character who attempts to lead a good life despite struggling with seemingly absurd calamities and life changes is the protagonist of the Coen Brothers’ dark comedic film A Serious Man (2009), set in late 1960s American suburbia.