Professional life in Paris of Alexander von Humboldt

The years from 1804 to 1827 Humboldt devoted to publication of the data accumulated on the South American expedition. With the exception of brief visits to Berlin, he lived in Paris during this important period of his life. There he found not only collaborators among the French scientists—the greatest of his time—but engravers for his maps and illustrations and publishers for printing the 30 volumes into which the scientific results of the expedition were distilled. Of great importance were the meteorological data, with an emphasis on mean daily and nightly temperatures, and Humboldt’s representation on weather maps of isotherms (lines connecting points with the same mean temperature) and isobars (lines connecting points with the same barometric pressure for a given time or period)—all of which helped lay the foundation for the science of comparative climatology. Even more important were his pioneering studies on the relationship between a region’s geography and its flora and fauna, and, above all, the conclusions he drew from his study of the Andean volcanoes concerning the role played by eruptive forces and metamorphosis in the history and ongoing development of Earth’s crust. These conclusions disproved once and for all the hypothesis of the so-called Neptunists, who held that the surface of Earth had been totally formed by sedimentation from a liquid state. Lastly, his Political Essay on the Kingdom of New Spain contained a wealth of material on the geography and geology of Mexico, including descriptions of its political, social, and economic conditions, and also extensive population statistics. Humboldt’s impassioned outcry in this work against the inhumanities of slavery remained unheard, but his descriptions of the Mexican silver mines led to widespread investment of English capital and mining expertise in the mines.

During his years in Paris, Humboldt enjoyed an extraordinarily full life. He had the ability to cultivate deep and long-lasting friendships with well-known scientists, such as the renowned physicist and astronomer François Arago, and to evoke respect and admiration from the common man, an ability that reflected his generosity, humanity, and vision of what science could do. A gregarious person, Humboldt appeared regularly in the salons of Parisian society, where he usually dominated the conversation. He lived simply, in a modest apartment at the top of an old house in the Latin Quarter. His fortune had been seriously depleted by the cost of his expedition and the publication of his books, and for the rest of his life he was often in financial straits. He was, moreover, always willing and anxious to assist young scientists at the beginning of their careers. Due to his magnanimity, generosity, and wise judgment, promising students who lacked funds were given the necessary encouragement, financial assistance, and introductions to the scientific community to insure a successful start in life. Such men as the German chemist Justus von Liebig and the Swiss-born zoologist Louis Agassiz owed to Humboldt the means to continue their studies and embark on an academic career. The best proof of his wide interests and affectionate nature lies in his voluminous correspondence: about 8,000 letters remain.

Later years

The happy years in Paris came to an end in 1827. Humboldt’s means by then were almost completely exhausted; unable to maintain his financial independence, he had to return to Berlin, where the king impatiently demanded his presence at court. Until a few years before his death, Humboldt served as a tutor to the crown prince, as a member of the privy council, and as a court chamberlain. He made use of his position to acquaint the young prince and the royal family with scientific methods and the scientific ideas of his time. His enthusiasm for the popularization of science prompted him to give a course on physical geography to the professors and students of all faculties of the University of Berlin, part of which he repeated in a public lecture to an audience of more than 1,000. In the autumn of the same year, 1828, he also organized in Berlin one of the first international scientific conferences. Such large gatherings of possibly liberal-minded people were frowned upon by governments in the wake of the Napoleonic Wars and the attendant rise of democratic expectations, and it is a tribute to Humboldt’s adroitness that he was able to overcome the misgivings of official Prussian circles.

In 1829 Humboldt was given the opportunity to visit Russia and Siberia. On the initiative of the Russian minister of finance, Count Yegor Kankrin, he was invited to visit the gold and platinum mines in the Urals, as an adviser to the government on the techniques and organization of mining. But Humboldt had to pledge himself to refrain from commenting on the political situation of the country whose despotism he abhorred. This expedition, lasting only one summer, was very different from the South American journey; the members, Humboldt and two young scientists, were accompanied throughout by an official guard, since they were guests of the tsar. Humboldt and his companions had to endure tiresome receptions at the imperial court and in the homes of provincial governors. They traveled in carriages as far as the Altai Mountains and the Chinese frontier. The resulting geographical, geological, and meteorological observations, especially those regarding the Central Asian regions, were of great importance to the Western world, for Central Asia was then to a large degree unknown territory.

Humboldt passed the last 30 years of his life in Berlin. Once a year he traveled to Paris, where he renewed his contacts with the French scientists, enjoyed daily discussions with his friend Arago, and breathed the cosmopolitan air he so sadly missed in Berlin.

Even before his visit to Russia, he had returned to an investigation of a phenomenon that had aroused his interest in South America: the sudden fluctuations of Earth’s geomagnetic field—the so-called magnetic storms. With the help of assistants, he carried out observations of the movement of a magnetometer in a quiet garden pavilion in Berlin; but it had been clear to him for a number of years that, to discover whether these magnetic storms were of terrestrial or extraterrestrial origin, it would be necessary to set up a worldwide net of magnetic observatories. The German mathematician Carl Friedrich Gauss had already begun to organize simultaneous measurements of the magnetic field by several observatories in Germany, England, and Sweden. In 1836 Humboldt, still interested in the problem, approached the Royal Society in London with the request that it establish an additional series of stations in the British possessions overseas. As a result, the British government provided the means for permanent observatories in Canada, South Africa, Australia, and New Zealand and equipped an Antarctic expedition. With the help of the mass of data produced by this international scientific collaboration, one of the first of its kind, the English geophysicist Sir Edward Sabine later succeeded in correlating the appearance of magnetic storms in Earth’s atmosphere with the periodically changing activity of sunspots, thus proving the extraterrestrial origin of the storms.

During the last 25 years of his life, Humboldt was chiefly occupied with writing Kosmos, one of the most ambitious scientific works ever published. Four volumes appeared during his lifetime. Written in a pleasant, literary style, Kosmos gives a generally comprehensible account of the structure of the universe as then known, at the same time communicating the scientist’s excitement and aesthetic enjoyment at his discoveries. Humboldt had taken immense pains to discipline his inclination to discursiveness, which often gave his writing a certain lack of logical coherence. He was rewarded for his effort by the success of his book, which, within a few years, had been translated into nearly all European languages.

While still working on the fifth volume of Kosmos with hardly diminished vitality and enthusiasm and with an unimpaired memory, Humboldt died in his 90th year.