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Early history
The classic Greek theatron (literally, “a place of seeing”) was built in the open air, usually on a hillside, and placed so that the afternoon sunlight came from behind the audience and flooded the performing area with light. The larger Roman theatres were also outdoors, but the added luxury of a coloured awning stretched over the spectators softened the glare of the sun. Later, in the Middle Ages, miracle plays and mystery plays were primarily performed outdoors on the front steps of the church and the adjoining square, although the first dramatized biblical scenes were performed as part of, or following, mass inside the church. There is no record that these scenes were lighted any differently from the mass itself. In England the pageant wagon, complete with actors and properties, was drawn through the main street of a town. Until the 16th century, the theatre continued to be mainly an outdoor institution.
Under the patronage of the aristocracy in Italy, private performances, pageants, and tableaux began to be given indoors. Sebastiano Serlio, an Italian architect, gave considerable attention to theatre design, and in a treatise written in 1545 he discussed theatre construction and the creation of lighting effects. He recommended placing candles and torches behind flasks filled with amber- and blue-coloured water. Andrea Palladio’s indoor theatre, also in Italy, used common light sources: torches, pine knots, open-wick lamps, and tallow candles. In England at the end of the 16th century, the Globe Theatre was used for summer performances of William Shakespeare’s plays, but in winter performances were given in the completely enclosed Blackfriars Theatre. Artificial light, produced mainly by candles, was used in several indoor theatres to light the stage and the auditorium.
In the early 17th century, Inigo Jones introduced several innovations in lighting and stagecraft, using reflectors to intensify the light sources and making use of colour on stage. The earliest known definite description of stage lighting may be found in Architectura Civilis (1628; “Civil Architecture”), by Joseph Furttenbach (also spelled Furtenbach). He describes the use of oil lamps and candles set in a row along the front edge of the stage but out of sight of the audience, and he also mentions vertical rows of lamps behind each wing at the sides of the stage. The common method of lighting the stage and auditorium was by means of tallow candles. As seen in old prints, these candles were mounted in crude hoops or chandeliers, which were hoisted aloft on pulleys to hang in dripping splendour. Gold decorations applied to the interior of the auditorium caught the many reflections. The inconvenience of the lighting system was that candles were expensive and hard to control. The twisted wicks had to be constantly trimmed during the performance, and this was the duty of the snuff boy. A transformation from light to darkness was effected by the agile skill of the candle snuffers.
When David Garrick used footlights at the Drury Lane Theatre in 1765, he masked the candles with metal screens. By 1784, when Richard Brinsley Sheridan managed the Drury Lane, all lights used to illuminate the stage were out of sight, hidden by the now familiar wings and borders.
The floating oil wick lamp was replaced after 1783 by the Argand oil lamp, in which the cylindrical wick was enclosed in a glass chimney to steady the flame and provide a brighter, whiter, and cleaner light source. The chimneyed oil lamp eventually replaced the candle, but it was still hung in clusters above and bracketed to the walls. At the Haymarket Theatre in London, the oil lamps had chimneys of white and green glass that were controlled by levers, so that raising or lowering the chimneys could effect light changes. Actually, rather than subtly shifting the quality of the light, the chimneys’ movement merely made the actors and scenery more or less visible. Stage design and stagecraft had now advanced as far as was technically possible under the limitations of low-intensity stage lighting.
The first major advance in several centuries was the introduction of gas lighting. Near the end of the 18th century, the Scottish engineer William Murdock developed a practical method to distill gas from coal for illumination. The first successful adaptation of gas lighting for the stage was demonstrated in the Lyceum Theatre, London, in 1803 by a German, Frederick Winsor. The Chestnut Street Opera House in Philadelphia installed a gas lighting system in 1816 and supplied its own gas by installing a gas generator on the premises. (Gas stations and city mains did not come into use before 1850.) The advantages of gas lighting were immediately realized and exploited, despite the initial cost. No new methods of lighting, however, were devised for stage lighting. The conventions remained the same: footlights (a row of lights across the front of the stage floor), borderlights (a long horizontal row of lights used for the general lighting of the stage from above), and striplights (a row of lights usually mounted in a trough reflector and placed in the wings to illuminate specific portions of the stage or setting).
Even without a chimney, an open gas jet flame was brighter than oil lamps or candles. The additional advantage was control; by varying the control valves from a central point, a smooth increase or decrease of light could be effected, and at variable speeds. For the first time, to add to the realism of the play, the auditorium lights could be darkened. Elaborate central control systems were devised, with a main regulator, branch mains, secondary regulators, and valves. This growing array of valves and pipes was organized into circuits and displayed on the “gas table”—the forerunner of the modern switchboard.
But there were also disadvantages to gas: heat, offensive vapours, and the serious fire hazard of the open flame. Protective codes were soon established that necessitated the use of guards, screens, and glass chimneys. In 1890, after the introduction of electric lighting, the incandescent gas mantle was developed (see incandescent lamp). Although the mantle greatly improved the quality of light—which was brighter and whiter—the hazards of fire still remained.
Although Thomas Drummond, a British engineer, invented the limelight in 1816, it did not come into general use until some 30 years later. A limelight produces light by directing a sharp point of oxyhydrogen flame against a cylindrical block of lime. The tiny area of lime becomes incandescent and emits a brilliant white light that is soft and mellow. As the block of lime is slowly consumed by burning, it has to be slowly and constantly turned by an operator to supply the flame with a fresh surface. Since the brilliant area was very small, the addition of a mirrored reflector was necessary to give accurate control.
The intensity of the limelight permitted it to be directed onto the stage from the auditorium. Since it offered control as well as intensity, the limelight was quickly adapted to follow individual performers around the stage. The sharpness produced by the small point source made possible the creation of realistic effects, such as sunlight and moonlight, and moving effects, such as clouds, water, and fire.