Arabic

Arabic was the language of the conquerors of Sind. But it enjoyed more permanent prestige as the language of the Qurʾān, the sacred book of Islām; as such it was extensively used for religious scholarship during the medieval period. Even as late as the 18th century, Shāh Walī Allāh, the greatest theologian to have lived in India, wrote his most important treatises in Arabic. Arabic was also used early for historiography and for making Indian scientific books available to the Middle East in translation. One does not find, however, much in the way of significant Arabic belles lettres in India.

Turkish

Although the earliest Muslim conquerors in northern India were Turks, their language was Persian. It was only during the reigns of Bābur and his son Humāyūn (1526–56) that Turkish flourished for a while as a medium of learned expression. Bābur himself was the foremost contributor. Although his memoirs are better known, he also left a volume of verses of considerable merit.

Regional languages

The literatures of the Indo-Iranian languages of Baluchi and Pashto are exclusively creations of Muslim writers. In the Indo-Aryan languages of Kashmiri, Sindhi, and Punjabi, Muslims were the most influential contributors; the names of Lallā (14th century) for Kashmiri, Shāh ʿAbd-ul-Laṭīf (17th–18th century) for Sindhi, and Wāris̄ Shāh (18th century) for Punjabi exemplify that fact. Muslim chieftains gave impetus to the growth of Bengali literature through their patronage of writers and through their efforts to have Sanskrit classics translated into Bengali. There are also many famous Muslim names during the medieval period of Bengali literature, such as Dawlat Qāz̄ī and Ālāol in the 17th century. In the heartland of northern India, notable contributions were made by Muslims to Hindi literatures in the Braj and Awadhi dialects. Malik Muḥammad Jāyasī, Raḥīm, and Manjhan (all 16th century) and ʿUs̄man (17th century) are some of the important names. In the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries in India there was a tremendous production of mystic (Ṣūfī and bhakti) poetry in all of the important dialects and languages. It was a period of great mystic, syncretic movements, and the Muslim contribution in the form of love narratives and lyrics was considerable. Quite often metres, motifs, and assorted rhetorical features of Persian mas̄navīs and ghazals (see below Urdu) were used in a new medium. Moreover, interaction and assimilation took place between the Muslim Ṣūfī traditions, thought, and practices and the Indian bhakti schools. Muslim bhakti poets either expressed Ṣūfī ideas, which were close to monotheistic orthodoxy as well as to the doctrines of Indian saints Kabīr and Nānak, in the Indian dialects through narrative poems modelled on Persian mas̄navīs or chose the path of ecstasy and became devotees of Krishna (which was still close to the more orthodox forms of Ṣūfīsm). None of them followed the devotional style of Tulsīdās, their contemporary and a devotee of Rāma.

It was, however, in Persian and Urdu that Muslim men of letters made the greatest contributions—contributions that led in the former case to the establishment of an “Indian” school of Persian poetry and influenced profoundly the development of poetry in Afghanistan and Tadzhikistan and, in the latter case, led to the emergence of a unique pan-Indian language and literature in Urdu.

Persian

Maḥmūd of Ghazna, with whom the chain of Muslim conquests in northern India began, was also the patron of Ferdowsī, one of the greatest of Persian poets. The later conquerors admired literature no less. Since the language of all of them was Persian, the growth of Persian literature in India kept pace with its conquest by the Muslims.

Masʿūd Saʿd Salmān (born 1046 in Lahore), who later became the governor of Jullundhur, was the first noteworthy person of Indian origin to have written poetry in Persian. The first truly great poet was Amīr Khosrow, who wrote in the 13th and 14th centuries. Of Turkish descent, born in the district of Etah in northern India, Khosrow was connected with royal courts all his life, even after 1272, when he became a disciple of the great mystic Niẓām-ud-Dīn Awliyā. He wrote five books of poems, or dīvāns, composed of ghazals (see below Urdu), panegyrics and several mas̄navīs—altogether some 200,000 couplets. In poetry, his innovative spirit displayed itself in waṣf-nigārī—that is, descriptions of natural objects in short poems, which Khosrow incorporated within longer ones. His keenness of observation is also evident in his use of local fauna and flora as poetic images. Khosrow’s distinction lies not so much in the fact that he is an innovator, however, as in the fact that he is equally superb in narrative poetry, panegyrics, and lyrics. The range of his popularity and influence can best be gauged by the fact that, in northern Indian folk literature, one comes across numerous songs and riddles consistently attributed to Amīr Khosrow.

In the centuries that followed Khosrow, until the end of the Islāmic period, India contributed to Persian literature in two ways: first, through the production of dictionaries that helped to standardize the language and consolidate its vocabulary; second, through the development of the so-called Indian style of Persian poetry.

It is generally agreed that this Indian style, sabk-e hindī, did not originate within the geographic confines of India, though it reached its most sublime form there at the hands of poets who either were born in India or spent their most productive years at various Indian courts. Some of the characteristics of the style are (in the words of one modern critic) the emphasis on

parallel statement . . . ; on complex conceit like that of the seventeenth century English “metaphysical” poets, arising out of economy of expression and telescoping into a single image a variety of emotional states; on “cerebral” artifice in pushing familiar images to unfamiliar and unexpected lengths; and on the creation of a synthetic poetic diction in which a whole phrase constitutes a single image.

The keen observation of daily life that is also characteristic of Indian Persian poetry could have been inspired by the traditions of classical Sanskrit poetry, with which these poets must have been familiar through the extensive translations done during the reign of the Mughals.

The century (1556–1657) of the reigns of Akbar, Jahāngīr, and Shāh Jahān was the most glorious period for Persian poetry in India, though, except for Fayẕī, all of the important poets were immigrants from Persia who found relief from religious and political persecution as well as generous patronage at the hands of the great Mughals and the lesser kings of southern India. The great men of letters of that period were ʿUrfī, Ṭālib Āmulī, Naẓīrī, Ẓuhūrī, Kalīm, and Ṣāʾib.

The greatest poet of the Indian style, however, was ʿAbdul Qādir Bēdil, born in 1644 in Patna, of Uzbek descent. He came early under the influence of the Ṣūfīs, refused to be attached to any court, and travelled widely throughout India during his long life. Bēdil’s 16 books of poetry contain nearly 147,000 verses and include several mas̄navīs. Though ignored by the Iranians, Bēdil’s poetry had an impact on Tadzhik and Uzbek literatures, and its influence is still evident in Afghanistan. A poet of great virtuosity and philosophic bent, he was well acquainted with Indian religions and philosophy. His anti-feudal views and his critical and skeptical attitude toward all kinds of dogma make his poetry relevant even today. His style is difficult, his metaphors and syntax quite complex (though the language itself is quite simple); and yet, as a modern critic puts it, “the intensity of his subjective assessment is so acute and factual, and his metaphysical experience so intense, that genuine poetry emerges in all its splendour.”