Stylistic and historical development from 220 to 1206 ce

The Three Kingdoms (220–280) and Six Dynasties (220–589)

After the fall of Luoyang (311) and Chang’an (316) to the invading Xiongnu, the building of great cities and palaces ceased until the Northern Wei moved their capital to Luoyang in 495. There they constructed a city of great magnificence (which was eventually sacked in 535). The main monuments of the 4th and 5th centuries were Buddhist temples and monasteries. By the mid-6th century there were some 500 religious establishments in and around Luoyang alone and about 30,000 in the whole of the northern realm.

Each Buddhist temple had a pagoda erected as a reliquary or memorial, and other pagodas dotted the city and the surrounding landscape. They have mostly disappeared, but one can get some idea of their form from reliefs at Yungang and from the earliest surviving pagodas at Nara in Japan. Based on an enlargement and refinement of the Han timber tower, or lou, they had up to 12 stories, with a projecting mast at the top ringed with metal disks. This mast was the only feature preserved from the Indian Buddhist burial or reliquary mound, the stupa, a hemispherical form that the Chinese rarely seem to have copied. The brick and stone pagodas, which were originally more Indian in form and were gradually Sinicized, are tiered structures with the stories marked by projecting string courses (horizontal bands) and architectural features borrowed from timberwork indicated in relief. The oldest surviving example is the Songyue Temple, a 12-sided stone pagoda on Mount Song (c. 520–525) that is Indian in its shape and detail.

The Sui (581–618) and Tang (618–907) dynasties

The founding of the Sui dynasty reunited China after more than 300 years of fragmentation. The second Sui emperor engaged in unsuccessful wars and vast public works, such as the Grand Canal linking the north and south of China physically and economically. Work on these grand schemes exhausted the people and led them to revolt. The succeeding Tang dynasty built a more enduring state on the foundations the Sui rulers had laid, and the first 130 years of the Tang was one of the most prosperous and brilliant periods in the history of Chinese civilization. During this time, the empire was extended so far across Central Asia that for a while Bukhara and Samarkand (both now in Uzbekistan) were under Chinese control, the Central Asian kingdoms paid tribute to China, and Chinese cultural influence reached Korea and Japan. Chang’an became the greatest city in the world at that time; its streets were filled with foreigners, and foreign religions—including Zoroastrianism, Buddhism, Manichaeism, Nestorianism, Christianity, Judaism, and Islam—flourished. This confident cosmopolitanism is reflected in all the arts of the period.

The splendour of the dynasty reached its peak between 712 and 756 under the emperor Xuanzong (Minghuang), but before the end of his reign a disastrous defeat caused Central Asia to enter the control of the advancing Arabs, and the rebellion of General An Lushan in 755 almost brought down the dynasty. Although the Tang survived for another 150 years, its government and people largely turned against foreigners and foreign religions. In 845 all foreign religions were briefly but disastrously proscribed; temples and monasteries were destroyed or turned to secular use, and Buddhist bronze images were melted down.

Only the descriptions in literature and poetry, no doubt exaggerated, remain of the architecture of southern China from the Sui period. The great palaces, temples, and pagodas of 6th-century Nanjing have all disappeared. Evidence of wall paintings and reliefs suggests, however, that the curved roof was already beginning to make its appearance in the south, although it did not reach northern China until well into the Tang dynasty.

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Architecture: The Built World

The Sui capital, Daxing (now Xi’an), was designed in 583 on imperial order by the great architect Yuwen Kai; renamed Chang’an, it was further developed by the Tang after 618. This vast city, six times the size of present-day Xi’an, was laid out in nine months on a grid plan, with eastern and western markets and the Imperial City placed in the north-central section, a plan later followed in the Ming dynasty rebuilding of Beijing. In 634 Tang Taizong built a new palace, the Daming Palace, on higher ground just outside the city to the northeast. The site of the Daming Palace, which became the centre of court life during the glittering reigns of Gaozong (649–683) and Xuanzong (712–756), was partly excavated. Remains were found of two great halls, Hanyuan Hall (reconstruction of the foundation completed in 2003, now a UNESCO World Heritage site), with its elevated corridors extended like huge arms toward overlapping triple towers (foreshadowing the later Japanese Phoenix Hall at Uji and the Wu Gate at Beijing), and the Linde Hall; marble flagstones and bases of 164 columns of the latter give some indication of its splendour. Lost marvels of Sui Tang palace architecture include Yuwen Kai’s rotating pavilion in the Sui palace, which could hold 200 guests, and the 90-metre- (295-foot-) high state Spirit Hall built for China’s only reigning empress, the usurper Wuhou (or Wu Zetian, who changed the name of the dynasty from Tang to Zhou during her reign from 690 to 705). Surviving murals from Buddhist caves at Dunhuang and excavated royal tombs near Chang’an provide a graphic record of Tang architecture, its taste for multistory elevation, tall towers, and elaborate elevated walkways, its uncharacteristic use of brightly coloured tiles on the building surfaces, and its integration of architecture with gardens, ponds, and bridges.

The Sui-Tang period saw some of China’s most lavish royal tomb building, before the onset of a relative modesty in the Song (960–1279) and a decline of qualitative standards in later periods. Excavated royal tombs at Changling, north of the capital, include three built for close relatives of Wuhou who were degraded or executed by her on her way to the throne; they were reburied amid much pomp and splendour in 706 after the restoration of the Tang royal lineage. In each, the subterranean sepulchre is surmounted by a truncated pyramidal tumulus and is approached through a sculpture-lined “spirit way” (lingdao). Inside, painted corridors and incised stone sarcophagi provide a lingering record of Tang splendour, with colourful renderings of palatial settings, foreign diplomats, servants-in-waiting, and recreation at polo and the hunt. Along the corridor, niches that had served temporarily as ventilating shafts are stuffed with ceramic figurines—riders, entertainers, Tang horses, and other fabulous animals—mostly done in bold tricolour glazes. The corridor leads to two domed vaults serving as an antechamber and burial hall. The tombs of some Tang rulers were so grand that artificial tomb mounds no longer sufficed, and funerary caverns were carved out beneath large mountains. The huge tomb of Emperor Gaozong and his empress, who later reigned as Wu Zetian (China’s only joint burial of rulers), at Changling, has yet to be excavated but appears to be intact.

The Sui and the first half of the Tang were great periods of temple building. The first Sui emperor distributed relics throughout the country and ordered that pagodas and temples be built to house them, and the early Tang monarchs were equally lavish in their foundations. Apart from masonry pagodas, however, very few Tang temple buildings have survived. The oldest yet identified is the main hall of Nanchan Temple at Wutai in northern Shanxi (before 782); the largest is the main hall of nearby Foguang Temple (857). However, they are both small compared with the lost Tang temple halls of Luoyang and Chang’an.

Tang and later pagodas show little of the Indian influence that so marked the Songyue Temple pagoda. Tang wooden pagodas have all been destroyed, but graceful examples survive at Nara, notably at Hōryū Temple, Yakushi Temple, and Daigō Temple. Masonry pagodas include the seven-story, 58-metre- (190-foot-) high Dayan Ta, or Great Wild Goose Pagoda, of the Ci’en Temple in Chang’an, on which the successive stories are marked by corbeled cornices, and timber features are simulated in stone by flat columns, or pilasters, struts, and capitals.

Tang cave temples at Dunhuang were increasingly Sinicized, abandoning the Indianesque central pillar, the circumambulated focus of worship which in Six Dynasties caves was sculpted and painted on all four sides with Buddhist paradises. In the Tang, major Buddhist icons and paradise murals were moved to the rear of an open chamber and given elevated seating, much like an emperor enthroned in his palace or like any Chinese host.

The Five Dynasties (907–960) and Ten Kingdoms (902–978)

By the end of the Tang, the traditional Chinese techniques of architectural siting had been synthesized into geomantic systems known as fengshui or kanyu (both designating the interactive forces of heaven and earth). These had origins reaching back at least to earliest Zhou times (1046–256 bce) and were undertaken seriously by architects in all periods. Practiced by Daoist specialists, northern Chinese traditions emphasized the use of a magnetic compass and were especially concerned with the conjoining of astral and earthly principles according to months and seasons, stars and planets, the hexagrams of the Yijing divinatory text, and a “five phases” theory of fire, water, wood, metal, and earth that was first propagated in the Han dynasty (206 bce–220 ce). In the south, where landscape features were more irregular, a “Form school” emphasized the proper relationship of protective mountains (the northern direction representing dark forces and requiring barriers, the south being benign and requiring openness) and a suitable flow of water. In later periods, elements of both schools were used throughout China.

China’s fengshui masters and carpenters shaped a practice distinctively different from that of architects in the West, characterized by their ability to grace a building with auspicious good fortune or to curse it with ill fate. And so for the Chinese, siting and the proper timing of events was a more critical feature than architectural engineering, the latter, after all, requiring good execution but allowing little innovation. Understanding the flow of the earth’s vital energy (qi) and the relation of the stable earth to the ever-changing heavens, as known through astral charts and almanacs, provided these masters with an esoteric knowledge and authority that rivaled that of the emperor himself and brought it into the lives of every individual. Whether regarded, today, as superstition or as proto- or quasi-scientific knowledge, information about when to cut the first wood, how to position the building where the building materials would be stored, when to lay the threshold and build the hearth and marital bed or raise the main roof beam, were all matters of the utmost importance. Various charms, good or bad, might also be secreted away among the beams, and only certain numbers were used—all others avoided—in the measurement of parts, all of which made the fengshui masters and carpenters something like magicians or sorcerers, all-powerful in the lives of the people and as much to be feared as admired by their clientele.