Nervous system

The main ganglia, or nerve centres, of the nervous system and the major sense organs are generally concentrated at the anterior end. Typically, the primitive brain of the flatworm consists of a bilobed mass of tissue with lateral longitudinal nerve cords connected by transverse connectives, thus forming a rather ladderlike structure or grid running the greater length of the organism. Free-living forms commonly have two longitudinal cords, but some tapeworms have as many as 10. Sensory receptors occur in all groups.

Musculature

The well-developed muscular system present in flatworms is comprised of a subcuticular musculature consisting of layers of circular, longitudinal, and diagonal muscles close to the epidermis, and a mesenchymal musculature consisting of dorsoventral, transverse, and longitudinal fibres passing through the mesenchyme. In general, platyhelminths are capable of extensive body contraction and elongation.

Digestive and excretory systems

The blind-ending intestine of trematodes consists of a simple sac with an anterior or midventral mouth or a two-branched gut with an anterior mouth; an anus is usually lacking, but a few species have one or two anal pores. Between the mouth and the intestine are often a pharynx and an esophagus receiving secretions from glands therein. The intestine proper, lined with digestive and absorptive cells, is surrounded by a thin layer of muscles that effect peristalsis; i.e., they contract in a wavelike fashion, forcing material down the length of the intestine. In many larger flukes lateral intestinal branches, or diverticula, bring food close to all internal tissues. Undigested residue passes back out of the mouth.

Cestodes have no digestive tract; they absorb nutrients from the host across the body wall. Most other flatworms, however, have conspicuous digestive systems. The digestive system of turbellarians typically consists of mouth, pharynx, and intestine. In the order Acoela, however, only a mouth is present; food passes directly from the mouth into the parenchyma, to be absorbed by the mesenchymal cells.

The excretory system consists of protonephridia. These are branching canals ending in so-called flame cells—hollow cells with bundles of constantly moving cilia.

Free-living forms

Free-living platyhelminths (class Turbellaria), mostly carnivorous, are particularly adapted for the capture of prey. Their encounters with prey appear to be largely fortuitous, except in some species that release ensnaring mucus threads. Because they have developed various complex feeding mechanisms, most turbellarians are able to feed on organisms much larger than themselves, such as annelids, arthropods, mollusks, and tunicates (e.g., sea squirts). In general, the feeding mechanism involves the pharynx which, in the most highly developed forms, is a powerful muscular organ that can be protruded through the mouth. Flatworms with a simple ciliated pharynx are restricted to feeding on small organisms such as protozoans and rotifers, but those with a muscular pharynx can turn it outward, thrust it through the tegument of annelids and crustaceans, and draw out their internal body organs and fluids. Turbellarians with a more advanced type of pharynx can extend it over the captured prey until the animal is completely enveloped.

Digestion is both extracellular and intracellular. Digestive enzymes (biological catalysts), which mix with the food in the gut, reduce the size of the food particles. This partly digested material is then engulfed (phagocytized) by cells or absorbed; digestion is then completed within the gut cells.

Parasitic forms

In the parasitic groups with a gut (Trematoda and Monogenea), both extracellular and intracellular digestion occur. The extent to which these processes take place depends on the nature of the food. When fragments of the host’s food or tissues other than fluids or semifluids (e.g., blood and mucus) are taken as nutrients by the parasite, digestion appears to be largely extracellular. In those that feed on blood, digestion is largely intracellular, often resulting in the deposition of hematin, an insoluble pigment formed from the breakdown of hemoglobin. This pigment is eventually extruded by disintegrating gut cells.

Despite the presence of a gut, trematodes seem able to absorb glucose and certain other materials through the metabolically active tegument covering the body surface. Tapeworms, which have no gut, absorb all nutrients through the tegument. Amino acids (the structural units of proteins) and small molecules of carbohydrate (e.g., sugars) cross the tegument by a mechanism called active transport, in which molecules are taken up against a concentration gradient. This process, similar to that in the vertebrate gut, requires the expenditure of energy. Cestodes may also be able to digest materials in contact with the tegument by means of so-called membrane digestion, a little-understood process.